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THE   APPLICATIONS   OF  LOGIC 


THE  APPLICATIONS 
OF  LOGIC 


A  TEXT-BOOK 
FOR  COLLEGE  STUDENTS 


BY 

A.  T.  I  ROBINSON,  A.B. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  AT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS 
INSTITUTE   OP  TECHNOLOGY 


LONGMANS,   GREEN,    AND    CO. 

FOURTH  AVENUE  &  30TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 
LONDON,  BOMBAY,  &  CALCUTTA 


MA(N  L!D!^ARY 

REPLACING 


COPYRIGHT,     1912,    BY 
LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO, 


THB.PLIMPTOH .PRESS 

[W • D • O] 
NORWOOD. MASS'U-S -A 


BCioS 


PKEFACE 


This  book  is  based  on  ten  years  of  class-room  experi- 
ence at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  first 
with  courses  in  formal  logic,  and  latterly  with  an  attempt 
to  adapt  some  of  the  more  fundamental  theories  of  logic 
to  the  practical  aim  of  instruction  in  the  expression  and 
the  criticism  of  thought.  Such  an  attempt  has  seemed 
not  out  of  place  with  any  class  of  students,  but  particu- 
larly important  in  connection  with  the  work  of  a  technical 
school,  the  graduates  of  which  are  likely  to  find  in  their 
professional  life  more  use  for  an  orderly  structure  of  ideas 
than  for  the  niceties  of  expression.  The  purpose  of  the 
book  is  to  treat  the  whole  subject  of  logic  in  so  far  as  it 
bears  on  the  practical  work  of  thinking  and  of  expressing 
thought;  it  is  intended  as  a  text-book  of  applied  logic, 
suitable  for  use  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject  with 
college  classes.  To  some  extent,  therefore,  the  exercises 
proposed  take  the  form  of  work  in  composition;  but  at 
the  same  time  many  of  them  are  intended  rather  to  culti- 
vate the  critical  faculty  by  a  direct  exercise  of  the  judg- 
ment. These,  too,  have  a  bearing  on  expression,  but 
their  immediate  effect  is  designed  to  be  the  ordering  and 
control  of  ideas  within  the  mind  itself.  The  exercises  in 
composition  may  be  classed  as  elementary  or  advanced 
according  to  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  pupils 
who  undertake  them.  They  might  follow  a  course  in  the 
elements  of  rhetoric;  but  also  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  precede  it. 

The  study  of  logic  has  been  from  its  earliest  appearance 
connected  with  the  practice  of  thinking  and  of  expressing 

M862578 


vi  PREFACE 

ideas;  and  in  this  connection  has  offered  a  body  of  vastly 
important  truth.  Yet  its  teachings  in  this  direction  are 
not  even  now  easily  available  for  class-room  use.  The 
best  of  the  modern  books  are  highly  technical  and  argu- 
mentative; in  many  of  the  simpler  class-manuals,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  exercises  are  somewhat  remote  and  formal. 
In  view  of  this  situation  it  appears  that  there  may  be  room 
for  a  simphfied  treatment  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
logic,  presented  in  the  practical  setting  of  a  series  of 
exercises.  Experience  has  shown  that,  in  being  thus 
taught,  the  student  loses  no  essential  theory.  Later,  if 
time  permits,  he  may  be  given  a  course  in  the  nice  dis- 
tinctions of  the  syllogism,  and  he  will  come  to  it  with  that 
intelligent  appreciation  which  so  abstract  and  technical  a 
subject  demands. 

For  the  epistemology  of  the  book  no  excuses  are  offered. 
It  is,  like  every  theory  with  a  philosophic  basis,  susceptible 
of  attack.  The  changes  also  that  could  be  made  in  the 
exposition  of  it  are  numberless.  These,  however,  as  far 
as  they  now  occur  to  me,  would  lie  along  the  direction  of 
greater  accuracy  of  statement,  and  might  serve  merely 
to  confuse  the  beginner.  Again,  since  the  book  is  not  a 
formal  treatise  on  logic,  but  deals  mainly  with  the  applica- 
tions of  logical  principles,  no  apology  need  be  made  for 
the  substitution  in  some  cases  of  simpler  distinctions, 
such  as  suited  the  main  lines  of  thought  of  the  book,  for 
certain  familiar  terms.  The  treatment  of  the  syllogism, 
for  instance,  is  here  made  to  depend  upon  substance 
rather  than  upon  form.  It  therefore  loses  in  relative 
importance  and  falls  back  into  its  natural  position  in 
the  whole  perspective  of  the  subject. 

A  list  of  my  general  obligations  would  be  cumbersomely 
long.  I  owe  special  thanks  to  a  short  treatise  by  Mary 
Boole,  to  the  writings  of  Bradley  and  Alfred  Sidgwick, 


PREFACE  vii 

and  above  all  to  such  parts  of  Hegel's  Logic  as  I  have  been 
able  to  render  into  terms  of  my  own  thinking.  It  would 
be  surprising  and  disconcerting  if  this  book  were  found  to 
contain  any  original  thought,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  the 
ideas  in  it  have  been  anywhere  put  to  quite  the  same  use 
before. 

Simplicity  of  statement  has  not  been  the  chief  aim  in 
writing.  In  doubtful  cases  I  have  asked  myself,  not  what 
some  ''average"  student  of  such  and  such  attainments 
would  understand,  but  what  seemed  from  my  point  of 
view  most  vital  and  inspiring.  The  reason  for  this 
attitude  lay  partly  in  my  desire  that,  if  possible,  the  book 
might  interest  not  only  students  but  teachers,  who  are, 
after  all,  the  only  thorough  readers  of  text-books.  Again, 
I  am  by  no  means  convinced  that  the  average  pupil  is 
so  slow  of  apprehension  as  in  discouraged  moments  we 
incline  to  think  him.  Yet,  if  students  were  ten  times  more 
dull  than  has  ever  been  asserted  of  them,  I  should  still 
not  wish  to  spread  among  them  the  impression  that  educa- 
tion may  be  had  without  work.  Each  day  they  must  be 
asked  to  attempt  a  little  more  than  they  can  accomplish; 
each  day  their  enthusiasm  must  be  stimulated  by  the 
presentation  of  ideas  which,  because  of  their  large  bear- 
ing on  the  problems  of  life,  seem  worth  a  sustained  effort 
to  master. 

I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Arlo  Bates  for  having  twice 
read  my  manuscript,  and  to  Professor  Henry  L.  Seaver 
for  valuable  suggestions  toward  the  development  of  the 
chapter  on  classifications  and  divisions. 

A.  T.  ROBINSON 

Massachusetts  Institute 
OF  Technology. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 1 


PART   I 
THE   ORDER    OF    STATEMENTS 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Logical  Analysis  of  Prose 7 

II.  The  External  Connections  of  Thought        .       .  32 

III.  The  Mental  Connections  of  Thought     ...  45 

IV.  The  Logical  Outline 53 

PART   II 
TOE    MEANING    OF   STATEMENTS 

I.     The  Subjects  of  Thought 66 

II.     Observation    and    the     Resulting     Statements 

ABOUT  Facts 71 

III.  The  Ideas  Employed  in  Observation         ...  81 

IV.  The  Limits  of  Ideas 91 

V.     Ideas  and  Individuals 102 

VI.     Logical  Subdivisions 116 

PART   III 
THE    VERIFICATION    AND    PROOF    OF    STATEMENTS 

I.     Statements   of  Fact  and  Statements  of  Theory     129 
II.     Evidence:   Testimony  and  Authorities     .      .      .      137 

[ix] 


X  CONTENTS 

III.  Arguments  from  Resemblance 146 

IV.  Arguments  from  Cause 163 

V.     Arguments  from  Definition 177 

CONCLUSION:    The  Point  of  View 194 

APPENDICES 

A.  Example  of  Logical  Analysis 201 

B.  The  Use  of  Reference  Books 208 

C.  A  List  of  Books  and  Articles  Referred  to  .      .  218 


THE  APPLICATIONS  OF  LOGIC 


INTRODUCTION 

Teachers  of  composition  fall,  generally  speaking,  into 
two  classes.  The  first  is  those  of  artistic  temper,  admirers 
of  polite  Hterature,  who  like  to  teach  their  pupils  to  imitate 
the  masters  of  style,  and  who  in  their  criticisms  pay  less 
attention  to  the  meaning  than  to  the  form.  The  second 
class  we  may  think  of  as  hard-headed,  practical  men,  who 
lay  all  the  emphasis  on  clear  and  accurate  statement. 
Text-books  on  composition  appeal  to  both  these  points 
of  view.  They  contain  some  directions  for  acquiring 
the  gentle  art  of  giving  pleasure  by  the  use  of  words,  and 
some  which  relate  to  the  plain  business  of  saying  what  you 
mean.  All  these  latter  and  purely  practical  matters  are 
a  part  of  logic,  and  will  be  found  treated  in  an  elementary 
way  in  the  chapters  which  follow.  This  book,  therefore, 
though  not  a  treatise  on  how  to  write,  covers  some  things 
to  be  found  in  manuals  used  with  classes  in  composition. 
At  the  points  where  these  occur,  as  in  Part  I  for  instance, 
the  average  student  will  feel  himself  most  at  home.  He 
will  recognize  much  that  he  has  been  taught,  principles 
relating  to  the  connection  of  statements  within  the  para- 
graph, and  to  the  outhne  of  the  theme. 

At  the  same  time,  one  who  wishes  to  get  to  the  bottom 
of  the  difficulty  he  experiences  in  saying  what  he  means 
must  go  deeper  than  the  ordinary  text-books  in  composi- 
tion. He  must  study  the  process  of  thought  itself;  he  must 
learn  to  think  of  ideas  as  symbols  for  something  which  the 
mind  cannot  deal  with  in  its  original  form;  and  he  must 
become  aware  how  much  the  symbols  leave  out  of  count. 


2  THE  APPLICATIONS  OF  LOGIC 

This  is  the  business  of  Part  II.  The  material  here  will  be 
considerably  less  familiar  to  the  average  reader,  and  will 
demand  close  attention.  Some  part  of  it  has  hitherto 
been  treated  as  psychology,  and  some  is  a  modification 
of  ideas  presented  in  the  early  chapters  of  text-books  on 
logic.  It  is  offered  in  this  book  as  a  continuous  story, 
dealing  first  with  the  things  we  try  to  think  about,  then 
with  the  process  of  observing  these  things  and  giving 
them  names,  and  finally  with  the  necessary  defects  of 
this  process.  The  cautions  given  in  these  chapters  con- 
stitute the  most  valuable  part  of  the  book,  for  they  relate 
to  mistakes  in  thinking  which  we  are  constantly  making 
and  to  which  attention  has  seldom  been  called. 

The  principles  laid  down  in  Part  III  are  touched  upon 
in  books  on  argumentation.  The  same  ground  is  covered 
also,  though  in  an  entirely  different  way,  in  what  is  called 
inductive  or  formal  logic.  In  this  portion  of  the  book  the 
only  unfamiliar  material  is  likely  to  be  the  division  of 
statements  into  two  classes,  and  the  way  in  which  argu- 
ments are  treated.  The  theory  of  all  this,  for  one  who 
has  come  through  the  preceding  chapters,  will  be  easy. 
To  apply  the  theory,  however,  may  be  a  more  difficult 
matter.  For  the  ordinary  student,  one  of  the  hardest 
feats  of  logical  analysis  is  to  detect  the  essential  state- 
ments of  an  argument  and  to  see  how  they  are  connected. 

In  the  three  parts  of  this  book,  then,  there  is  an  attempt 
to  answer  three  questions:  first,  How  shall  I  arrange  my 
statements  as  a  whole,  and  what  shall  be  the  connections 
between  them;  second.  What  will  my  statements  be  worth 
as  a  representation  of  the  things  I  talk  about;  and,  third, 
Are  my  statements  such  as  the  majority  of  well-informed 
people  would  uphold?  The  first  and  third  questions,  it 
is  evident,  must  frequently  have  been  asked;  daily  ex- 
perience forces  them  upon  us  whenever  we  attempt  to 


INTRODUCTION  3 

communicate  thought.  The  second,  from  its  very  nature, 
is  less  likely  to  arise.  Most  of  us  do  not  even  realize  that 
thinking  is  the  manipulation  of  symbols.  It  cannot, 
therefore,  occur  to  us  to  study  the  relation  between  these 
symbols  and  what  they  represent. 

The  scope  of  all  this  material  is  evidently  wider  than 
the  mere  teaching  of  composition.  One  who  is  to  study 
this  book  with  any  degree  of  patience,  therefore,  must 
give  up  the  idea  that  all  he  wants  is  to  learn  to  write. 
Skill  in  writing  is  a  good  thing;  but  it  is  a  better  thing, 
if  what  you  have  written  is  foolish,  to  be  able  to  see  that 
it  is  so  and  to  discover  the  reason.  Moreover,  we  spend 
only  a  small  part  of  our  time  in  writing  and  talking. 
During  most  of  it  we  are  being  written  and  talked  at, 
and  frequently  also  by  people  with  command  of  a  charming 
style  and  much  impressive  phraseology.  If  we  stand  with 
mouths  open,  as  William  in  the  play  stood  before  Touch- 
stone, and  drink  in  all  that  these  people  give  us,  it  will  be 
because  our  education  has  failed  to  develop  our  judgment. 
While  a  man  is  in  this  state,  every  new  word  that  is  added 
to  his  vocabulary  is  only  one  more  means  by  which  the 
designing  may  lead  him  astray.  Such  a  condition  will 
not  satisfy  the  student  of  this  book.  He  has  joined  the 
company  of  those  who  want  truth,  and  will  fight,  if  neces- 
sary, to  get  it.  They  fight  confusion  and  disorder;  they 
fight  empty  phrases;  words  that  are  mere  symbols  but 
pretend  to  be  Uving  things;  general  ideas  that  carry 
implications  not  justified  by  the  facts  they  come  from; 
and  statements  based  on  a  few  cases  but  advanced  as 
though  true  of  all.  Such  is  the  task  of  the  logician.  He 
is  a  student  of  composition,  of  course,  but  only  because 
he  is  concerned  with  a  broader  subject  of  which  it  is  one 
branch.  His  real  interest  is  to  study  expression  in  its 
relation  to  what  it  pretends  to  express. 


PART  I 
THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

Part  I  is  a  study  of  the  order  in  which  one  statement 
follows  another  in  expression.  Here  we  deal  with  two 
questions.  The  first  is,  How  is  a  particular  statement 
joined  with  what  precedes  and  what  follows?  The  answer 
appears  to  be  that  sometimes  we  think  of  things  together 
because  we  found  them  so  in  nature.  They  have  been 
associated  in  our  minds,  or  they  relate  to  events  close 
together  in  time,  or  to  objects  naturally  joined  in  space. 
These  are  the  external  connections  of  thought,  suggested 
to  us  in  the  mere  order  in  which  mental  material  presents 
itself.  Sometimes,  again,  the  relations  are  those  which 
the  mind  itself  naturally  uses  in  handling  ideas,  as  when 
we  compare  one  notion  with  another,  or  think  of  one  state- 
ment as  a  reason  for  another.  These  are  the  mental 
connections  of  thought. 

The  names  of  all  these  methods  of  connection  are,  of 
course,  sufficiently  familiar.  Few  people,  perhaps,  could 
give  a  philosophic  definition  of  a  reason;  but,  once  our 
attention  is  called  to  the  matter,  we  can  all  tell  with  more 
or  less  ease  when  a  sentence  is  supposed  to  prove  some 
statement  that  precedes.  All  these  matters,  then,  are 
well  known  to  us  as  theory.  Nevertheless  we  have  prob- 
ably not  been  trained  to  put  them  into  practice  in  the 
criticism  of  prose.  The  first  four  chapters,  therefore,  do 
not  attempt  to  define  accurately  the  relations  of  thought, 
but  merely  remind  the  reader  of  their  existence.     Examples 


THE   ORDER  OF   STATEMENTS  5 

are  then  furnished  which  give  opportunity  to  test  one's 
abihty  to  apply  the  distinctions.  The  real  purpose  of 
these  early  pages  is  to  give  enough  exercise  in  the  analysis 
of  logical  connections  so  that  the  student  may  begin  to 
form  a  logical  habit  of  mind. 

The  second  and  really  fundamental  question  in  this  part 
of  the  book  is  the  following :  How  does  a  particular  state- 
ment fit  in  with  the  whole,. or,  What  good  is  it  going  to  do 
if  included?  Here  it  is  seen  that  statements  cannot  be 
set  down  in  their  original  chaos,  but  must  be  arranged 
in  order,  to  reach  out  toward  some  point  definitely  located 
in  advance.  A  story  is  not  a  mere  sequence  of  events;  a 
description  differs  from  a  photograph;  and  it  is  not  sufii- 
cient  that  each  thought  should  be  logically  connected  to 
the  preceding,  unless  at  the  same  time  one  kind  of  logi- 
cal connection  dominates  the  whole.  Behind  the  whole 
operation  there  must  be  a  purpose;  and  a  logical  order  of 
statements  may  be  spoken  of  as  one  which  clearly  shows 
the  point  of  view  of  the  thinker. 

Chapter  I  explains  the  kind  of  analysis  aimed  at, 
and  distinguishes  it  from  literary  and  grammatical  criti- 
cism. There  follow  certain  exercises  in  note-taking  and 
the  drawing  up  of  abstracts.  These  are  included  as  the 
kind  of  work  which  most  quickly  tests  a  student's  ability 
to  strip  prose  to  its  logical  skeleton. 

Chapter  II  deals  with  the  order  in  which  mental 
material  originally  comes  to  us,  and  shows  how  this  order 
must  be  changed.  At  this  point  the  exercises  are  brief, 
for  detailed  study  of  narrative  and  description  must  be 
left  to  novelists  and  students  of  literature. 

Chapters  III  and  IV  enumerate  the  logical  relations 
and  attempt  to  show  how  they  govern,  not  only  the  con- 
nections betw^een  sentences,  but  also  long  sequences  of 
thought.     With  the  exercises  which  follow,  the  student 


6  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

will  be  able  for  the  first  time  in  this  book  to  test  the  degree 
of  his  logical  power.  The  relations  with  which  he  is 
there  asked  to  become  familiar  are  those  which  form  the 
subjects  of  the  remaining  chapters. 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  PROSE 

Thoughts  come  before  us,  as  students  of  logic,  only  in 
the  form  of  words.  There  may  be  a  preliminary  stage 
when  they  exist  unclothed  in  language;  but  in  this  condi- 
tion they  are  apparently  but  half  formed  in  the  mind, 
hanging  here  and  there  by  a  phrase.  This  state  does  not 
permit  of  criticism,  and  so  logic  may  neglect  it.  Clear 
thinking,  on  the  other  hand,  is  for  most  people  inseparable 
from  some  sort  of  expression,  written,  spoken,  or  mental, 
conveyed  to  others  or  in  soliloquy.  This  is  so  true  that 
a  man  often  remains  uncertain  of  his  own  meaning  till 
he  has  put  it  into  words.  The  wise  foreman,  when  obliged 
to  rebuke  a  troublesome  member  of  his  gang,  sends  him 
about  some  piece  of  work  before  he  can  answer.  To 
check  a  rebellious  word  often  saves  making  a  rebel.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  quickest  way  to  master  a  hard 
problem  in  mathematics  is  usually  to  attempt  to  explain 
it  to  somebody  else.  Till  a  man  can  express  his  thought, 
he  can  hardly  be  said  to  know  what  he  thinks. 

Yet  this  expression  does  not  always  justly  represent 
the  real  thought.  The  soul  of  the  idea  has  taken  on  bodily 
form;  and  in  the  process  it  often  assumes  a  rather  mean 
disguise.  Ideas  come  forth,  except  from  well-trained 
minds,  more  or  less  at  haphazard.  With  some  thinkers 
the  difficulty  is  to  get  started;  they  must  allow  for  a 
preliminary  period  of  talking  or  writing  at  random, 
merely  that  they  may  discover  what  they  have  to  say. 


8  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

Even  when  the  start  has  been  made,  all  sorts  of  dangers 
still  threaten.  The  quick  brain,  working  more  rapidly 
than  the  pen,  jumps  to  some  new  train  of  thought  and 
leaves  the  writer  stranded.  Interesting  ideas,  remotely- 
connected  with  his  purpose,  drag  him  out  of  his  path. 
In  blank  moments,  being  able  to  think  of  nothing  better, 
he  despairingly  sets  down  nonsense.  Every  writer  has 
these  trials;  and  because  of  them  the  reading  of  his  first 
copy  sometimes  fills  him  with  disgust.  Now  suppose 
him  to  be  unaccustomed  to  the  analysis  of  written  state- 
ments. Then,  in  attempting  to  correct  his  copy,  he  sits 
helpless  before  his  own  manuscript,  knowing  that  some- 
thing is  the  matter,  but  unable  to  tell  what.  In  the 
beginning,  perhaps,  his  head  was  clear  enough;  but  now 
he  has  dressed  his  thought  in  words,  and  effectually  dis- 
guised it,  even  from  himself.  That  the  thought  of  other 
people  is  equally  puzzUng  requires  no  proof.  Ordinary 
talk,  and  even  much  that  gets  into  print,  fills  the  mind 
with  a  crowd  of  words,  some  of  plain  meaning,  but  many 
ill-chosen  or  vague,  and  some  even  intended  to  deceive. 
There  are  illustrations,  digressions,  meanings  faintly 
hinted,  and  figures  of  speech.  All  these  express  ideas; 
but  it  often  requires  some  keenness  to  determine  which 
of  the  ideas  are  for  the  moment  most  important,  and  how 
they  fit  together  to  form  a  whole. 

Thus  there  comes  a  time  when  the  relative  value  of 
expressions  —  our  own  as  well  as  those  of  others  —  must 
be  judged.  To  be  equal  to  this  task,  the  thinker  must 
first  acquire  the  abihty  to  analyze  what  he  has  written  or 
what  he  reads.  He  must  be  capable  at  each  step  of 
detecting  the  leading  thought,  and  of  seeing  its  rela- 
tion to  what  has  preceded.  Amid  all  the  smoke  and 
confusion,  he  must  stand  by  the  guns.  ,  This  is  the  logi- 
cal habit  of  mind;   and  to  form  it  is  the  end  of  all  logical 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  9 

study.  It  is,  in  a  familiar  phrase,  the  abihty  to  see  the 
point^j 

This  logical  habit  of  mind  cannot  be  exactly  described 
in  words,  and  no  specific  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the 
guidance  of  one  who  wishes  to  acquire  it.  Habits  of  mind 
are  not  particular  acts,  but  tendencies  to  act  in  particular 
ways.  A  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  extraction  of 
the  square  root,  but  not  for  acquiring  a  business  sense 
or  a  taste  for  good  literature.  So  with  the  logical  habit. 
It  is  in  reality  a  special  way  of  thinking  as  you  read;  that 
is,  a  particular  way  of  analyzing  prose.  It  should  grow 
up  unconsciously  in  the  student's  mind  as  he  reads  this 
book  and  works  with  the  exercises;  but  it  cannot  even 
begin  in  the  conscious  following  of  specific  rules. 

There  are,  however,  some  negative  cautions;  these 
relate  chiefly  to  the  necessity  of  removing  other  habits 
that  interfere  with  the  development  of  the  logical  sense. 
One  difficulty  in  thinking  logically  is  that  we  have  been 
trained  already  to  some  other  methods  of  analysis.  The 
sense  of  grammar  and  sentence  structure  is  the  result  of 
training  in  analysis;  so  too  is  all  literary  judgment  of 
the  good  taste  or  aptness  of  expressions.  These  habits, 
as  students  of  logic,  we  must  for  the  moment  lay  aside. 
The  grammatical  form  is  not  necessarily  a  key  to  the 
thought,  and  the  literary  form  often  serves  merely  to 
disguise  it. 

Our  earliest  attempts  at  analysis  were  in  the  grammar 
grades.  They  accustomed  us  to  look  upon  written  or 
printed  matter  as  a  collection  of  sentences.  These 
sentences  we  think  of  as  formed  essentially  in  two  parts: 
a  subject,  a  statement  of  the  thing  you  are  talking  of,  and 
a  predicate,  a  statement  of  the  thing  you  mean  to  say. 
In  logic  too  there  are  subjects  and  statements  about  them, 
but  these  seldom  correspond  to  the  grammatical  subjects 


10  THE   ORDER  OF   STATEMENTS 

and  predicates.  In  a  carefully  drawn  outline  or  brief 
of  a  passage,  the  successive  statements  and  headings  will 
represent  closely  the  thought  involved.  For  mathemati- 
cal writing,  again,  a  simple  and  direct  presentation  is 
possible.  All  mathematical  conceptions  have  been  de- 
fined in  advance;  they  were  created  simple  and  clear. 
Ordinary  prose,  however,  presents  the  student  of  logic 
with  a  problem  quite  different.  When  there  are  a  thou- 
sand possible  ways  of  viewing  and  developing  one  idea, 
and  the  writer  is  anxious  to  choose  the  most  striking  and 
novel,  he  does  not  go  about  his  work  directly.  Under 
such  conditions  we  need  to  study  his  meaning,  not  his 
accidental  grammatical  form. 

In  the  same  way  we  must  not  permit  ourselves  to  be 
distracted  by  the  details  of  expression.  Most  writing 
deals  with  real  life;  it  attempts  to  represent  experiences 
highly  confusing  and  complex.  For  such  a  purpose  the 
writer  requires  a  mass  of  illustrations  and  tributary  ideas, 
which  the  logical  critic  must  grasp,  not  independently, 
but  in  their  relation  to  something  else.  He  strives  first 
to  see  the  thought  in  its  simplest  form,  and  knows  that, 
if  he  can  only  discover  the  point,  the  other  ideas  will  fall 
into  place  and  stay  there,  like  a  regiment  of  soldiers  that 
respect  their  colonel. 

No  charm  in  the  expression  of  secondary  ideas,  and  no 
attraction  in  their  meaning,  must  interfere  with  their 
being  taught  thus  to  know  their  place.  For  an  untrained 
thinker  some  imimportant  illustration  is  often  the  most 
conspicuous  statement  on  a  page.  It  entertains  him,  it 
amuses  him;  and  in  his  pleasure  he  forgets  the  point  it 
was  intended  to  convey.  In  intellectual  processes  there 
is,  however,  no  valid  reason  why  one  should  expect  to  be 
entertained  or  amused.  If  a  lecturer  tells  a  good  story, 
if  a  speaker  makes  us  laugh  or  cry,  he  has  undoubtedly 


THE   LOGICAL   ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  11 

added  to  our  emotional  experience;  but  it  remains  for  a 
calmer  moment  to  determine  how  far  he  may  have  fur- 
thered the  real  business  of  thought.  The  feelings,  in  short, 
are  no  reliable  guide  to  the  value  of  ideas.  The  critical 
mind  is  safest,  at  least  in  the  beginning  of  its  training, 
in  that  alert  and  unemotional  attitude  which  we  call 
"businesslike."  It  is  on  this  account,  perhaps,  that  one 
so  often  hears  logic  described  as  "cold." 

The  growth  of  this  same  businesslike  habit  of  mind 
is  perhaps  the  chief  gain  from  a  logical  training.  One 
grows  accustomed  to  watch  the  drift,  to  pick  out_t]ie 
essential  and  to  cling  to  it.  The  formation  of  these  habits 
increases  the  power  of  critical  attention;  and  upon  this 
power,  l3oth  in  the  drawing-room  and  in  the  business 
office,  all  success  depends.  The  mood  of  attention  must 
necessarily  be  self-suppressed,  and  collected  and  brisk. 
These  qualities  a  man  may  cultivate,  so  far  as  any  formal 
exercise  will  cultivate  them,  if  he  does  all  his  reading, 
and  listens  to  such  set  speeches  as  come  in  his  way,  with 
the  attitude  of  one  who  seeks  to  estimate  ideas  and  to 
discover  their  relative  values,  that  he  may  see  the  rela- 
tions between  them.  Neglecting  to  do  this,  he  will  remain 
all  his  life  a  broken  and  empty  vessel ;  no  amount  of  pump- 
ing can  fill  him.  Doing  it,  he  will  be  by  way  of  acquiring 
a  trustworthy  judgment  and  accumulating  information 
which,  since  he  has  made  it  his  own,  will  become  part  of 
his  permanent  mental  equipment. 

EXERCISES 

Note-Taking.  For  developing  the  power  of  seeing 
the  point  no  training  can  be  better  adapted  than  a  pro- 
longed and  carefully  graded  set  of  exercises  in  note- 
taking.  With  this  work  the  student's  training  in  logic 
should  begin.     He  may  first  draw  up  abstracts  from  simple 


12  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

passages  in  print,  and  then  take  notes,  first  from  the  slow 
reading  of  such  passages,  and  then  from  lectures  and 
addresses.  This  practice,  also,  should  react  favorably 
on  the  student's  other  courses.  In  view  of  these  facts 
there  follow  certain  suggestions  for  a  brief  course  of 
exercises. 

1.  Compare  the  following  selection  with  the  outline 
which  accompanies  it.  How  far  does  the  outline  repre- 
sent the  essential  thoughts,  their  connections,  and  as 
much  of  the  details  as  is  necessary  to  a  grasp  of  the  leading 
ideas? 

To  THE  Editor  of  the 


Our  institution  is  now  undergoing  a  great  transition.  Whether 
she  ynH  emerge  from  it  a  rich  and  powerful  university  of  engi- 
neering, or  whether  she  will  fall  in  the  struggle  with  adverse 
conditions  is  as  yet  uncertain.  The  outcome  depends  entirely 
on  the  loyalty  of  the  students,  past,  present,  and  future,  and 
upon  her  reputation  for  turning  out  men  who  do  everything 
they  attempt  better  than  anyone  else  can  do  it. 

Under  these  conditions  no  more  important  step  could  have 
been  taken  by  the  students  than  that  of  entering  major  inter- 
collegiate sports.  A  really  fine  baseball  team  could  not  help 
strengthening  the  position  of  the  school.  It  would  show  to  begin 
^ith  that  our  students  are  proud  of  representing  the  school, 
a  fact  which  the  public  (not  without  cause)  is  beginning  to 
doubt.  It  would  show  that  an  engineer  graduated  from  here 
would  at  least  be  likely  to  have  a  physique  which  would  com- 
mand the  respect  of  his  men,  a  consideration  which  is  injuring 
us  not  a  little  at  present.  It  would  give  men  a  chance  of  rep- 
resenting their  college  without  having  to  submit  to  the  one- 
sided development  demanded  by  the  track.  Above  all  it  would 
show  the  prep,  school  boys  that  we  have  some  spirit.  It  is  this 
quality  in  a  college  more  than  anything  else  which  attracts  the 
best  men  to  it. 

The  team  might  do  even  more.     It  might  be  able  to  aid  as 


THE   LOGICAL   ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  13 

did  the  Carlisle  football  team  some  years  ago,  when  it  built  the 
University  a  new  lecture  hall  and  gymnasium  from  the  proceeds 
of  its  games.  It  would  certainly  have  an  influence  in  keeping 
the  school  in  touch  with  the  alumni  through  bringing  the  latter 
back  to  the  games.    A  really  good  team  would  be  invaluable. 

If  a  good  team  will  help  the  school,  it  hardly  needs  to  be  said 
that  a  poor  one  will  injure  it.  A  half-coached,  ill-equipped, 
and  unsupported  team,  well- whipped  for  one  season,  will  dis- 
gust more  alumni,  cast  more  discredit  on  the  ability  of  the  stu- 
dents, and  generally  injure  our  reputation  more  than  any  other 
one  thing  which  could  be  devised.  Everyone  will  agree,  I 
think,  that  rather  than  this  we  might  better  have  left  things 
as  they  were. 

What  have  we,  however,  done?  All  men  interested  in  var- 
sity baseball  are  asked  to  sign  sHps.  An  enormous  number 
did  S9.  A  meeting  was  then  called.  An  attendance  of  about 
four  hundred  was  expected,  and  it  was  supposed  that  those 
opposed  would  be  on  hand  to  argue  against  the  organization 
of  a  team.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  were  only  about  thirty 
men  there.  Of  these  one  was  opposed  to  the  measures  taken, 
but  he  said  not  a  word.  The  men  who  had  signed  the  lists, 
the  members  of  the  athletic  association,  the  members  of  other 
teams,  and  even  many  of  our  best  ball  players,  were  conspicu- 
ous by  their  absence.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  not  surprising 
that  a  team  was  organized  by  a  body  composed  half  of  enthu- 
siastic baseballists  and  half  of  freshmen  who  did  not  know  any 
reason  for  not  organizing  it. 

The  men  who  were  not  at  that  meeting  have  two  courses 
now  open  to  them.  They  can  express  their  desire  to  have  that 
team  aboHshed  by  writing  to  the  athletic  association;  if  they 
do  not  write,  they  must  stand  ready  with  every  bit  of  their 
share  of  time,  energy,  and  money  to  make  that  team  the  finest 
in  the  country. 

I  imagine  some  will  do  neither.  If  a  very  large  number 
do  not  take  the  necessary  interest  to  express  their  opinion,  it 
seems  to  me  that  something  is  radically  WTong  with  the  educa- 
tion given  by  our  college. 


14  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

Will  the  man  who  cannot  delay  his  lunch  five  minutes  to 
vote  on  a  question  that  may  involve  the  honor  of  his  Alma 
Mater  turn  over  his  hand  to  save  an  employer's  property? 
Will  he  ever  contribute  as  an  alumnus  to  the  support  of  his 
Alma  Mat€r?    Should  we  then  continue  to  graduate  such  men? 

Student's  letter  to  a  school  paper 


^ 


Outline 

\(1)  The  school  needs  help  from  the  students. 

(a)  It  is  at  a  critical  period  in  its  history. 

(2)  This  help  can  best  take  the  form  of  competition  in 

major  athletic  sports. 

(a)  Such  competition  would  show  the  pubhc  our 
spirit. 

(6)  It  would  assure  employers  of  the  physical  fit- 
ness of  graduates. 

(c)  It  would  give  a  better  training  than  track-work. 

(rf)  It  would  attract  students. 

(c)  It  would  bring  financial  support. 

(3)  This  competition  must  be  heartily  and  generally  sup- 

ported. 

(4)  The  steps  already  taken  have  not  the  support  of  the 

student  body  at  large. 

(5)  It  is  not  too  late  to  oppose  or  support. 

(6)  Men  who  do  neither  show  no  promise  of  future  use- 

fulness. 

2.  Compare  the  two  following  outlines  with  the  text 
of  Briggs,  "School,  College  and  Character,"  Chapter  V 
(Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1902).  Which 
seems  the  more  nearly  to  represent  the  real  structure  of 
the  essay?  Let  the  portions  of  the  essay  corresponding 
to  Sections  3  and  8  in  Outline  B  be  read  aloud  while  the 
student  attempts  to  note  down  briefly  the  missing  sub- 
headings. This  book  has  been  selected  as  likely  to  be 
found  on  the  shelves  of  most  college  libraries. 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  15 

The  Transition  from  School  to  College 

(A) 

(1)  College  is  a  privilege. 

(a)  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  attempted  without 

preparation. 
(6)  This  preparation  is  the  diflficult  preparation  of 

a  boy  for  manhood. 

(2)  The  freshman's  predicament. 

(a)  He  may  now  for  the  first  time  "go  out  into  the 

world." 

(b)  A  gradual  adjustment,  properly  begun  in  school, 

should  accomplish  for  him  this  transition. 

(3)  The  freshman's  helps. 

(a)  An  element  of  gradual  and  continuous  adjust- 

ment in  athletics. 

(b)  Another  in  study,  but  this  is  effective  only  for 

the  exceptional,  for 

(1)  The  average  fellow,  regarding  study  as  an  obli- 

gation, is  unequal  to  it  as  a  privilege;  and 

(2)  He   has  to   learn   the    hard  lesson   of   the  re- 

sponsibility of  freedom. 

(3)  The  inspiration  of  study  as  a  privilege  is  a  great 

help. 

(c)  Another  help  is  the  interest  and  advice  of  col- 

lege offic6rs. 
(rf)  Another,    protective    agencies    in    school    and 

college, 
(e)  The  best,  friendly  supervision  in  college. 

(B) 

(1)  College  life  is  a  privilege  not  to  be  entered  into  hghtly. 

(2)  It  is  often  undertaken  with  insufficient  preparation. 

(3)  To  give  the  right  sort  of  preparation  is  difficult,  for 

(a) 
(6) 
(c) 


16  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

(4)  There  should  be  a  gradual  increase  of  responsibility 

through  school  and  college. 

(5)  It  is  the  time  of  going  out  into  the  world  (though 

sometimes  earher). 

(6)  The  best   school  training   ought  to  make   the   tran- 

sition easier  by  instiUing  principles  (for  the 
freshman's  ideas  are  in  many  things  irra- 
tional). 

(7)  Continuity  is  the  solution. 

(a)  Seen  in  athletics  (in  spite  of  faults):  illustra- 

tion of  its  helpfulness  in  the  first  danger  of 
the  year,  —  "seeing  life." 

(b)  Summary  of  its  effects. 

(8)  The  incentive  of  study  is  not  strong  enough  to  be  very 

helpful,  for 
(o) 
(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 

(/) 

(9)  Summary  of  difficulties;  tendency  to  neglect  work. 

(10)  (a)  More  restrictions  in  college  perhaps  of  advantage. 
(6)  More  responsibihty  in  later  years  of  school  cer- 
tainly so.     Example  of  the  prefects. 

(11)  The  best  protective  agency  is  friendly  supervision  in 

college. 

3.  The  following  selection  is  from  Bryce,  "The  Ameri- 
can Commonwealth,"  Vol.  II,  p.  210  (Macmillan  and 
Company,  London,  1889).^  The  student  should  attempt 
to  take  notes  from  hearing  it  read  aloud.  Here  there  is 
no  strongly  marked  division  of  main  headings.  The 
chief  object  of  the  note-taker  ought  to  be  to  jot  down 
enough  characteristic  phrases  to  suggest  the  substance. 

*  Reprinted  by  permission. 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  PROSE  17 

Whenever  possible,  he  should  avoid  the  attempt  to  put 
ideas  into  his  own  words,  and  content  himself  with  writing 
parts  of  what  he  actually  hears.  The  notes  should  not 
be  crowded;  nothing  is  more  surely  fatal  to  the  legibility 
of  notes  than  the  attempt  to  economize  paper. 

A  business  man  reads  in  his  newspaper  at  breakfast  the  events 
of  the  preceding  day.  He  reads  that  Prince  Bismarck  has 
announced  a  policy  of  protection  for  German  industry,  or  that 
Mr.  Henry  George  has  been  nominated  for  the  mayoralty  of 
New  York.  These  statements  arouse  in  his  mind  sentiments 
of  approval  or  disapproval,  which  may  be  strong  or  weak  accord- 
ing to  his  previous  predilection  for  or  against  protection  or  Mr. 
Henry  George,  and  of  course  according  to  his  personal  interest 
in  the  matter.  They  rouse  also  an  expectation  of  certain  con- 
sequences likely  to  follow.  Neither  the  sentiment  nor  the 
expectation  is  based  on  processes  of  conscious  reasoning  —  our 
business  man  has  no  time  to  reason  at  breakfast  —  they  are 
merely  impressions  formed  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  He 
turns  to  the  leading  article  in  the  newspaper  and  his  sentiments 
and  expectations  are  confirmed  or  weakened  according  as  he 
finds  that  they  are  or  are  not  shared  by  the  newspaper  writer. 
He  goes  down  to  his  office  in  the  train,  talks  there  to  two  or 
three  acquaintances,  and  perceives  that  they  agree  or  do  not 
agree  with  his  own  still  faint  impressions.  In  his  counting- 
house  he  finds  his  partner  and  a  bundle  of  other  newspapers 
which  he  glances  at;  their  words  further  affect  him,  and  thus  by 
the  end  of  the  day  his  mind  is  beginning  to  settle  down  into  a 
definite  view,  which  approves  or  condemns  Prince  Bismarck's 
declaration  or  the  nomination  of  Mr.  George.  Meanwhile  a 
similar  process  has  been  going  on  in  the  minds  of  others,  and 
particularly  of  the  journalists,  whose  business  it  is  to  discover 
what  people  are  thinking.  The  evening  paper  has  collected 
the  opinions  of  the  morning  papers,  and  is  rather  more  posi- 
tive in  its  forecast  of  results.  Next  morning  the  leading 
party  journals  have  articles  still  more  definite  and  positive  in 
approval  or  condemnation  and  in  prediction  of  consequences 


18  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

to  follow;  and  the  opinion  of  ordinary  minds,  which  in  most  of 
such  minds  has  been  hitherto  fluid  and  undetermined,  has  begun 
to  crystalhze  into  a  solid  mass.  This  is  the  second  stage.  Then 
debate  and  controversy  begin.  The  men  and  the  newspapers 
who  approve  Mr.  George's  nomination  argue  with  those  who  do 
not;  they  find  out  who  are  friends  and  who  opponents.  The 
effect  of  controversy  is  to  drive  the  partisans  on  either  side 
from  some  of  their  argmnents,  which  are  shown  to  be  weak; 
to  confirm  them  in  others,  which  they  think  strong;  and  to  make 
them  take  up  a  definite  position  on  one  side.  This  is  the  third 
stage.  The  fourth  is  reached  when  action  becomes  necessary. 
When  a  citizen  has  to  give  a  vote,  he  votes  as  a  member  of  a 
party;  his  party  prepossessions  and  party  allegiance  lay  hold 
on  him  and  generally  stifle  any  individual  doubts  or  repul- 
sions he  may  feel.  Bringing  men  up  to  the  polls  is  like  passing 
a  steam  roller  over  stones  newly  laid  on  a  road:  the  angularities 
are  pressed  down  and  an  appearance  of  smooth  and  even  uni- 
formity is  given  which  did  not  exist  before.  When  a  man  has 
voted,  he  is  committed;  he  has  thereafter  an  interest  in  backing 
the  view  which  he  has  sought  to  make  prevail.  Moreover, 
opinion,  which  may  have  been  manifold  till  the  polling,  is  there- 
after generally  two-fold  only.  There  is  a  view  which  has  tri- 
umphed and  a  view  which  has  been  vanquished. 

Study  the  following  set  of  notes  taken  from  the  same 
selection.  Are  the  abbreviations  such  as  the  note-taker 
will  recall  after  a  reasonable  interval?  Are  there  any 
phrases  that  suggest  merely  the  subject,  not  the  idea 
expressed?  Are  the  connections  suflftciently  indicated? 
What  is  the  importance  of  punctuation  in  such  notes? 
What  would  be  the  objections  to  the  plan  of  writing  such 
notes  in  complete  sentences? 

The  form  of  notes  here  represented  is  probably  the  most 
common,  and  certainly  the  easiest  to  produce.  There  is 
no  reason  why  the  student  should  not  make  such  notes  more 
serviceable  after  the  lecture  by  underscoring  important 


THE   LOGICAL   ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  19 

words  or  placing  headings  in  the  margin.  The  important 
quaUties  in  notes  used  for  review  are  that  they  should 
catch  the  eye  quickly  and  prove  suggestive  enough  to  set 
the  mind  working  on  the  subject. 

Small  part  of  our  political  opinion  based  on  original  thinking. 

Business  man,  breakfast.  Bismarck,  mayor,  sentiments 
aroused,  various  degree.  Expectation  of  consequences,  not 
based  on  conscious  reasoning.     No  time  to  reason. 

Sees  n.p.  ed.  Train,  friends,  their  opinions,  counting-house, 
more  newspapers.    End  of  day,  definite  view. 

Other  men  the  same,  particularly  journaHsts,  evening  papers 
more  definite,  next  morning  more  papers,  solid  opinion. 

Then  debate  begins  in  n.p.    Partisans  appear,  arguments. 

Polls.  Man  votes  as  member  of  party,  individual  feeling 
repressed.  Steam  roller,  stone  road.  When  vote  cast,  man  com- 
mitted to  his  views. 

4.  The  two  outlines  which  follow  were  handed  in  by 
students  to  show  what  sort  of  essays  they  intended  to 
write  on  the  topic:  "The  Teacher's  Share  of  Responsi- 
bility in  the  Development  of  Social  Life  at College." 

Study  them  in  contrast.  The  first  (A)  shows  one  of  the 
most  common  and  serious  faults  in  outlines  and  briefs; 
the  second  is  free  from  this  fault.  What  is  the  fault, 
and  why  is  it  serious? 

(A) 

(1)  Should  we  have  any  social  life  at College?    If  so, 

should  the  instructors  help  to  attain  this  condition? 

(2)  There  should  be  social  life  at College. 

(3)  The  duty  of  the  teachers  concerning  the  increase  of 
social  life. 

(4)  How  can  the  instructors  help? 

(5)  The  difficulties  they  would  be  obliged  to  overcome  to 
assist  to  increase  such  hfe. 


2a  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

(6)  Attitude  of  instructors  towards  students. 

(7)  Manner  in  which  instructors  might  conduct  classes. 

(8)  Relations  between  students  and  instructors. 

(9)  General  opinion  of  instructors  among  the  students. 

(10)  Ck)nclusion:  Social  life  a  failure  and  the  reasons. 

(B) 

(1)  The  value  of  social  relations  between  students  and 
teachers  is  questionable  because  of  the  conditions  here. 

(2)  The  position  in  which  the  teacher  is  placed  puts  intimate 
acquaintance  out  of  the  question. 

(3)  The  nature  of  the  student  activities  tends  to  discourage 
association  between  students  and  instructors. 

(4)  The  teacher  can  bring  himself  closer  to  students  by 
introducing  a  more  personal  element  into  the  class-room. 

(5)  The  entertaining  of  students  by  teachers  is  generally 
impossible  for  financial  reasons. 

(6)  Conditions  in  general  seem  to  discourage  the  associa- 
tion of  students  and  teachers. 

5.  The  two  sets  of  notes  which  follow  were  taken  from 
a  lecture  on  ^'The  Common  Sense  of  the  Principle  of 
Unity."  Some  work  was  done  on  each  set  of  notes  im- 
mediately after  the  lectm-e.  Compare  the  two  styles  of 
note-taking,  especially  in  regard  to  physical  form.  In 
(A)  pick  out  the  spots  that  show  faulty  method. 

(A) 

Unity.  Necessary  because  supposed  to  have  a  purpose. 
Certain  amoimt  of  exertion  called  for  on  reader's  part;  repay. 
So  in  talk,  Point.  Point  in  a  larger  sense  is  to  have  one  thing 
to  do  and  stick  to  it. 

It  is  always  possible.  A  requirement  of  themes  and  a  special 
annoyance  for  freshmen.  In  novels;  in  magazine  article  by  a 
scientific  man;  in  letter  home.  Yet  best  novels  have  unity. 
Newcomes.    David  Harum.    The   play.     Letters  have   still   a 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE 


21 


better  sort  of  unity.  Show  the  personality.  Our  work  may  do 
the  same. 

Mechanical  unity.    Not  wander  to  other  subjects. 

Unity  of  purpose.    As  of  the  play.    A  logical  connection. 

Unity  of  p.  of  view.  Show  personahty.  The  interest  thus 
increased  in  all  work,  —  even  text-books. 

In  paragraphs  especially.     *'One  thing  I  do." 

(a)  To  rest  the  reader;  a  natural  pause  indicated  to  the  eye. 

(6)  The  logic  demands  it.    We  must  get  on,  from  step  to  step. 

An  absolute  requirement  in  all  clear,  business-hke  writing. 
Examples. 

How  developed.  From  within,  a  growth.  Any  length,  from 
sentence  to  chapter.  Scale  and  proportion.  Convenience  for 
reader.    Let  it  be  a  development  around  one  sentence. 


(B) 


In  the  whole 
composition. 


Necessary 


Possible 
always. 


In  the  paragraph. 


Kinds. 


An  absolute 
necessity. 


because  the  reader  expects 
return  for  his  effort,  i.e. 
point. 

U.  of  the  short   theme   a 
special   adaptation   of   the 
general  rule.    Some  sort  of 
unity  always  in  good  writ- 
ing, as:  in  a  novel  central 
interest;  in  a  letter,  unity 
of  point  of  view,  etc. 
Mechanical 
of  point  of  view. 
of  purpose. 

(1)  To  rest  the  reader.  Nat- 
ural pause,  indicated  to  the 
eye. 

(2)  For  logical  reasons. 
Gives  the  feehng  of  prog- 
ress, step  by  step. 


22  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

As  to  length 

of  paragraph.    Amount  contained  depends 
upon 

(1)  Length  of  whole. 

(2)  Expedience,  for  "a 
single  idea"  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  sentence  or 
a  whole  essay. 

6.  The  following  extract  is  an  account  of  the  virtues 
proper  to  student  life.  The  note-taker  will  attempt  to 
get  the  main  headings  as  they  occur,  to  express  them  briefly 
and  clearly,  and  to  place  them  on  paper  in  a  conspicuous 
position;  then  under  each  to  set  down  important  details. 

Love  of  truth  for  truth's  sake  is  intellectual  virtue.  It  pro- 
motes, it  is  the  basis  of,  indeed  it  is  morality.  This  is  the  tem- 
per of  students  in  all  colleges.  Some  are  lazy,  taking  the  line 
of  least  resistance;  some  regard  study  as  a  hardship  and  go 
about  it  doggedly;  but  to  a  man  our  students  are  truth-seekers, 
indignant  towards  falsehood  and  deceit. 

A  teacher  who  is  ignorant  is  not  respected.  It  is  a  fatal 
verdict  "  He  does  not  know  his  subject."  A  teacher  who  evades 
facts,  who  is  not  downright  honest  in  his  opinions,  is  despised. 

I  said  that  intellectual  coascientiousness  promotes  morality. 
It  certainly  promotes  truthfulness  in  all  relations.  College 
men,  whatever  their  faults  and  wrong-doing,  will  not  tell  lies. 
A  man's  word  is  sacred.  A  student  who  lies  to  a  fellow-student 
might  as  well  leave  college.  However  damaging  to  himself, 
he  will  not  put  No  in  place  of  Yes  to  a  president  or  a  professor. 
This  ^^^tue,  which  is  associated  with  the  English  gentleman, 
has  become  as  distinctively  the  virtue  of  the  American  gentle- 
man and  scholar. 

You  will  find  that  students  mean  to  regard  themselves  as 
gentlemen.  The  ideal  of  everyone  is  the  ideal  of  a  gentleman  — 
of  an  honorable,  generous,  courteous  man.  There  is  no  place 
where  meanness  has  so  little  toleration  as  in  a  college.    You 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  23 

will  search  long  to  discover  a  student  who  intentionally  hurts 
the  feelings  of  a  fellow-student,  or  one  who  does  not  applaud 
the  success  of  a  comrade.  A  student  must  be  a  gentleman  in 
all  relations.  Sports  must  be  gentlemanly.  There  are  queer 
notions,  to  be  sure,  of  the  manners,  the  speech,  and  the  dress  of 
a  gentleman  student;  but  the  ideal  in  the  essential  moral  quality 
is  there. 

Another  virtue  is  the  democratic  spirit.  Students  consti- 
tute a  democracy  of  merit  and  culture.  In  a  university  or 
college  the  rich  and  poor  of  all  sections  meet  together  and 
"  earth's  poor  distinctions  vanish  here."  Everyone  stands  upon 
his  merit,  not  upon  wealth  or  parentage.  There  are  self-con- 
stituted, artificial  aristocracies  in  some  universities,  but  they 
are  sneered  at  by  real  worth.  The  sturdy  Kansas  scholar  is 
not  impressed  by,  if  he  has  even  heard  of,  the  blue  book  of 
Boston.  Every  college  hkes  to  boast  that  it  is  democratic 
and  regards  the  reputation  of  being  aristocratic  as  a  slur.  It  is 
a  distinct  disadvantage  to  be  wealthy.  "He's  rich,  biU  he  is  a 
good  fellow." 

Loyalty  is  a  virtue  of  students  —  loyalty  to  the  college  or 
university.  One  who  excels  in  any  respect  must  run,  row,  play 
ball,  sing,  write,  debate,  for  the  glory  of  the  college.  A  student 
who  will  not  come  out  is  disloyal.  He  must  make  sacrifices  for 
his  college,  his  class,  his  fraternity.  He  will  be  a  good  citizen 
by  and  by,  a  patriot. 

The  college  is  imbued  with  the  idea  that  the  educated  man  is 
to  render  service.  The  colleges  were  founded  to  train  men  for 
service  to  the  state  and  the  world,  and  I  doubt  whether  in  any 
generation  the  aim  has  been  more  distinct  than  it  is  to-day. 
Success  in  occupation  and  profession,  indeed,  and  in  specific 
training  for  it,  yet  through  success  the  promotion  of  righteous- 
ness. Our  students  intend  to  be  leaders  and  helpers  in  the 
communities  in  which  they  will  five,  in  education,  citizenship, 
religion.  Especially  is  the  ci\dc  conscience  awake.  In  the 
college  is  a  mighty  impulse  to  service.  The  university  settle- 
ment is  one  expression  of  it.  Training  for  intelligent  citizen- 
ship is  another  expression.     Educated  men  may  be  selfish;  yet 


24  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

a  broad  education  is  always  understood  to  be,  not  for  its  own 
sake,  not  for  personal  culture  merely,  but  to  make  teachers, 
leaders,  ministers  in  society.  The  strongest  impulse  to  social, 
pohtical,  philanthropic  service  has  come  from  the  college.* 

7.  The  best  way  to  test  one*s  understanding  of  a  passage 
and  the  value  of  the  notes  taken  on  it  is  to  attempt  to 
report  it  for  some  particular  purpose.  A  lectiu-e  reported 
for  the  college  paper  is  the  most  useful  exercise.  The 
notes  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  finished 
report,  and  the  advice  and  criticism  of  the  editors  of  the 
college  paper  will  be  helpful.  If  no  such  lecture  is  avail- 
able, some  public  speech  that  happens  to  be  reported  in 
the  newspap)ers  may  be  read  aloud. 

Study  as  an  example  the  following  newspaper  report 
of  a  speech  by  President  Taft,  together  with  the  students' 
notes  and  reports  which  follow.  Are  the  defects  in  the 
students'  work  due  to  a  lack  of  imderstanding  of  the 
divisions  of  the  talk,  to  scanty  notes,  or  to  other  causes? 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Sept.  26. — In  the  pulpit  of  the  famous 
Mormon  Tabernacle  in  this  city,  where,  four  years  ago,  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt,  then  President,  preached  a  long  sermon  on  right 
living  and  the  duties  of  good  citizenship.  President  Taft  faced 
an  audience  which  he  said  inspired  him  .  .  .  "with  higher 
thoughts  of  country  and  patriotism." 

"A  soft  answer  tumeth  away  wrath,  but  grievous  words  stir 
up  anger  "  was  the  text  Mr.  Taft  selected  from  the  Book  of 
Proverbs.  The  sermon  was  a  homely  utterance,  largely  made 
up  of  a  relation  of  stories  to  give  emphasis  to  the  points. 

When  Senator  Smoot  introduced  the  President  to  the  audi- 
ence in  the  Salt  Lake  Tabernacle,  the  cheering  was  so  great  that 
Mr.  Taft  could  not  begin  his  address  for  several  minutes. 

'Harris,  "Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  the  Students  ?  "  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  PROSE  25 

"I  am  told  that  my  distinguished  predecessor,  under  the 
inspiration  of  an  audience  Hke  this,  dehvered  an  address  in 
the  nature  of  a  sermon  upward  of  two  hours  in  length.  Now,  he 
had  the  capacity,  he  had  the  spirit,  and  he  had  the  mission  to 
make  such  a  preachment  of  moral  force  and  inspiration.  He 
knew  how  to  appeal  to  the  best  that  is  in  a  man  and  a  woman 
and  arouse  them  to  lift  themselves  to  higher  standards  and  higher 
ideals. 

"But  it  has  not  been  given  to  me  to  exercise  that  great  influ- 
ence which  was  his,  and  which  shone  forth  from  him  as  he  stood 
before  men  upon  a  platform.  And  yet  I  have  felt  that  on  this 
Sunday  morning  it  was  necessary  for  me  to  make  such  effort 
as  I  could  to  follow  him  in  something  that  may  sound  a  bit  hke 
a  sermon.  And  as  sermons  are  begun  with  a  quotation  of  a 
text  having  more  or  less  relation  to  what  follows,  I  am  going  to 
give  you  the  words  from  Proverbs,  'A  soft  answer  turneth  away 
wrath,  but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger.' 

"It  is  a  text  that  has  forced  itself  upon  my  mind  during  the 
last  ten  years  with  especial  vigor,  because  I  have  come  into  con- 
tact with  oriental  peoples  and  with  those  descended  from  the 
Latin  races  of  Europe,  and  I  have  had  a  chance  to  compare 
their  views  of  life  and  their  methods  of  speech  and  their  social 
conventions  and  amenities  with  those  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

"We  Anglo-Saxons  are,  we  admit,  a  great  race.  We  have 
accomplished  wonders  in  hammering  out,  against  odds  that 
seemed  insurmountable,  the  principles  of  civil  hberty  and  popular 
government  and  making  them  practical  and  showing  to  the 
world  their  benefits.  But  in  so  doing,  and  in  the  course  of  our 
life,  it  seems  to  me,  we  have  ignored  something  that  our  fel- 
lows of  Southern  cHmes  have  studied  and  made  much  of;  and 
that  is  the  forms  of  speech  and  the  methods  of  every-day  treat- 
ment between  themselves  and  others.  At  first  that  seems  super- 
ficial to  us,  who  prefer  *No'  and  'Yes'  and  abrupt  methods  and 
communications  in  the  shortest  and  curtest  sentences,  but  we 
have  much  to  learn  from  Southern  peoples  of  that  kind  of 
courtesy  and  politeness. 

"The  truth  is  that  a  man's  hfe  in  his  family,  with  his  wife, 


26  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

with  his  children,  with  his  mother,  with  his  neighbors,  is  not 
made  up  of  'grandstand  plays'  and  all  that  sort  of  thing.  It  is 
made  up  by  a  series  of  httle  acts,  and  those  little  acts  and  those 
little  self-restraints  are  what  go  to  make  up  the  man's  character. 

"And  so  I  say  that  our  friends  of  the  Southern  cUmes  and  our 
oriental  friends  have  touched  a  point  in  philosophy,  the  phil- 
osophy of  life,  that  we  may  well  learn  from  them,  and  intro- 
duce into  our  hves  more  courtesy  and  more  pohteness,  more 
real  desire  to  make  everybody  happy  by  the  httle  things  of 
life,  which,  after  all,  constitute  all  there  is  in  life. 

"Now,  another  corollary  from  the  text  which  I  should  like 
to  draw  is  that  we  ought  to  ascribe  to  our  neighbors  and  to  those 
with  whom  we  come  in  contact  as  high  motives  as  we  can. 
We  ought  to  avoid  this  acrimonious  discussion  that  consigns 
everybody  who  is  opposed  to  our  views  to  perdition,  and  to  hav- 
ing the  most  corrupt  motives,  and  ascribe  to  those  who  stand 
with  us  only  the  purest  motives.  Life  is  too  valuable  to  waste 
in  anger  and  the  charging  and  denunciation  of  our  fellowmen 
when  they  don't  deserve  it. 

"The  truth  is,  this  matter  of  hatred  and  resentment  which 
accompanies  the  attributing  of  a  bad  motive  to  those  who  differ 
from  you  is  a  waste  of  nervous  strength,  of  worry,  without  accom- 
plishing one  single  good  thing.  I  don't  know  how  it  has  been 
with  you,  but  it  has  happened  time  and  time  again  with  me  that 
some  man  has  done  something  that  I  did  not  hke,  that  I  thought 
had  a  personal  bearing,  and  that  I  have  said  in  my  heart,  '  Times 
will  change  and  I  will  get  even  with  that  gentleman.' 

"I  don't  profess  to  be  free  from  those  feelings  at  all.  But  it 
has  frequently  happened,  I  may  say  generally,  that  the  time 
did  come  when  I  could  get  even  with  that  man,  and  when  that 
time  came  it  seemed  to  me  that  I  would  demean  myself  and  that 
it  would  show  me  no  man  at  all  if  I  took  advantage. 

"And  so,  my  friends,  what  I  am  urging  is  less  acrimony  in 
pubhc  discussion,  more  charity  with  respect  to  each  other  as 
to  what  moves  each  man  to  do  what  he  does,  and  not  to 
charge  dishonesty  and  corruption  until  you  have  a  real  reason 
for  doing  so. 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  27 

"I  am  the  last  man  to  pardon  or  to  mitigate  wrongs  against 
the  pubhc  or  against  individuals.  I  believe,  and  I  regret  to 
say,  that  throughout  this  country  the  administration  of  the 
criminal  law  and  the  prosecution  of  criminals  is  a  disgrace  to 
our  civiUzation;  but  it  is  one  thing  to  prosecute  a  criminal  when 
you  have  evidence,  and  it  is  another  thing  to  ascribe  motives 
to  the  act  of  a  man  when  you  have  not  any  evidence  and  are 
just  hving  in  your  imagination  in  respect  to  what  you  say. 

"And  now  I  cannot  in  the  presence  of  so  great  an  audience  as 
this,  an  audience  that  inspires  me  with  higher  thought  of  coun- 
try and  patriotism,  fail  to  refer  to  the  depth  of  feehng  that  has 
been  aroused  in  me  of  gratitude  for  your  welcome,  of  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  basis  of  that  welcome,  which  is  loyalty  to  your 
flag  and  country. 

"I  understand  that  in  the  great  office  of  President,  person- 
aUty  of  the  man  who  fills  it  for  the  time  sinks,  and  that  office 
typifies  the  nation,  so  that  all  people,  of  whatever  party,  ought 
to  feel  that  for  the  man  who  for  the  time  being  holds  the  office 
they  are  manifesting  a  respect  for  the  nation  for  which  they 
live  and  for  which  they  would  be  wilfing  to  die." 

(A) 

Notes 

TaJVs  sermon  in  the  Mormon  Temple.  —  Predecessor  in  sim- 
ilar circumstances  delivered  2  hour  sermon  —  Had  power  abifity 
and  —  I  am  not  gifted  —  but  it  is  fitting  that  I  should  defiver 
a  short  sermon  Text  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  Has 
been  forced  on  me  by  study  of  European  nations — Anglo- 
Saxons  great  but  have  ignored  forms  of  speech  courtesies  etc. 
—  We  have  much  to  learn  —  A  man's  fife  not  made  up  of  grand- 
stand plays  Is  made  up  of  httle  courtesies  sacrifices  etc. 
We  ought  to  ascribe  to  our  neighbors  the  highest  motives  pos- 
sible—  Life  is  too  valuable  to  spend  in  denunciation  —  It  is 
waste  of  time  and  worry  —  Personal  experiences  "I'll  get  even" 
spirit.  Time  came  and  restrained  myself.  I  urge  more  charity, 
less  acrimony.    I  am  last  man  to  pardon  or  mitigate  wrong- 


28  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

doing  —  One  thing  to  prosecute  criminal,  another  to  ascribe 
low  motives  and  condemn. 

When  a  man  enters  the  presidency,  his  personality  typifies 
the  nation  —  Farewell. 

An  Account  of  President  TaJVs  Sermon  in  the  Mormon 
Tabernacle 

At  the  opening  of  liis  speech  the  president  mentioned  the 
speech  of  his  predecessor  two  years  before.  In  glowing  terms  he 
spoke  of  the  abihty  of  Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  regretted  that 
he  was  not  gifted  with  the  same  eloquence  and  power.  The 
occasion  demanded,  he  said,  that  he  preach  something  in  the 
nature  of  a  sermon,  and,  as  sermons  are  generally  begun  by 
some  scriptural  text  which  constitutes  the  body  of  thought,  he 
announced  that  he  had  chosen  as  a  text  the  following  passage: 
"A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  but  a  grievous  word  stir- 
reth  up  anger."  The  truth  of  this  proverb,  the  president  said, 
had  been  impressed  upon  him  continually  in  his  study  of  the 
nations  of  southern  Europe.  We  Anglo-Saxons  are  a  great 
race,  but  in  our  strenuous  mode  of  life  we  have  ignored  the 
courtesies  and  niceties  of  speech  common  to  the  people  of  the 
Latin  nations. 

A  man's  life  is  not  made  up  of  grandstand  plays,  but  of  the 
small  sacrifices  and  courtesies  the  importance  of  which  is  fre- 
quently overlooked.  We  ought  to  ascribe  to  our  neighbors 
the  highest  possible  motives,  and  not  intentionally  seek  out  the 
lowest  and  meanest.  Life  is  too  short  and  valuable  to  spend  in 
denunciation.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  and  worry.  Then  the  pres- 
ident cited  several  instances  from  his  own  life.  Often,  he  said, 
when  convinced  of  the  lowness  of  some  act  of  a  fellow  man, 
he  had  said  to  himself,  "I'll  get  even!"  When  an  opportunity 
did  present  itself,  he  always  felt  as  if  he  would  be  doing  some- 
thing utterly  beneath  him  if  he  should  carry  out  his  original 
intentions. 

"I  urge,"  he  said,  "more  charity  and  less  acrimony."  The 
president  stated  that  he  is  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  pardon 
or  mitigate  wrong-doing.    He  spoke  of  the  condition  of  the  crim- 


THE   LOGICAL   ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  29 

inal  courts  as  "a  disgrace  to  the  civilization  of  the  United 
States."  It  is  one  thing,  argued  Mr.  Taft,  to  prosecute  a  crim- 
inal, and  another  to  ascribe  low  motives  indiscriminately  and 
to  condemn  without  reason. 

He  added  that  he  had  faithfully  tried  to  live  up  to  these  prin- 
ciples, for  when  a  man  enters  the  presidency,  his  personahty 
typifies  the  nation. 

With  a  few  words  of  farewell,  the  speech  was  concluded. 

(B) 

Notes 
Taft  "Lay  Sermon  in  Mormon  Temple  " 

I'm  told  that  predecessor  delivered  a  sermon  2  hrs  long. 
Had  capacity  —  to  make  inspiring  talk.  Knew  how  to  be 
inspiring.  I  have  not  his  gifts.  Yet  have  felt  that  I  should 
follow  him  in  a  sermon,  &  —  should  have  a  text  "Soft  answer 
—  grievous  words" 

This  text  impressed  on  me  by  contact  with  Orientals  and 
Latins,  &  comparison  of  habits  with  Anglo-Saxons. 

We  are  a  great  race,  have  overcome  obstacles,  &  have  demon- 
strated popular  gov.  But  have  ignored  forms  of  common  speech, 
etc.  May  seem  superficial  to  some.  But  we  have  much  to 
learn  in  pohteness.  In  family  life  —  not  made  up  of  grandstand 
plays,  and  little  acts  make  up  character.  So  L.  and  0.  have 
little  courtesies,  make  everybody  happy,  and  make  everyone 
get  all  there  is  out  of  Hfe. 

Another  thing  —  high  motives,  which  condemn  those  opposed 
to  us,  and  vice  versa.  Life  too  short  for  charging  and  hatred. 
This  is  a  waste  of  nerve,  time,  worry,  no  benefits.  My  experi- 
ence, some  man  hurt  me,  I  wish  to  get  even.  But  when  time 
came,  found  that  I  would  be  unmanly  to  do  it. 

So  I  urge  less  acrimony  in  pubhc  discuss,  don't  charge  graft. 
Am  last  man  to  lessen  wrong,  &  regret  to  say  that  prosecution 
of  criminal  in  this  country  is  awful.  To  prosecute  from  evi- 
dence is  all  right,  but  not  ascribing  false  motives. 


30  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

I  cannot  help  say  in  pres.  of  such  audience  gathered  for 
welcome,  &  basis  of  welcome.  In  office  of  Pres.  typifies  all 
America,  &  respect  given  it  is  from  love  of  country. 


A  Sermon  Delivered  by  President  Taft  in  the  Mormon 
Tabernacle 

"I  have  been  told  that  my  illustrious  predecessor  in  this 
pulpit  deUvered  a  wonderful  sermon  tliree  hours  long,  and  held 
an  enormous  audience  spell-bound.  He  had  the  capacity  for 
making  inspiring  talks,  but  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  I  have  not 
his  gifts.  However,  I  have  felt  that  I  should  follow  his  lead 
by  deUvering  a  sermon,  poor  though  it  may  be. 

"A  proper  sermon  should  have  a  text,  and  for  my  text  I  have 
chosen  the  passage  from  Proverbs,  *  A  soft  answer  turneth  away 
inTath:  but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger.'  This  text  has  been 
especially  impressed  upon  me  by  contact  with  oriental  races 
and  with  the  Latin  races  of  Europe,  and  by  a  comparison  of 
their  habits  and  modes  of  expression  with  similar  characteris- 
tics of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

"We  Anglo-Saxons  are  a  great  race.  We  have  pushed  stead- 
ily forward  through  almost  insurmountable  difficulties,  and  have 
above  all  demonstrated  to  the  world  the  possibifity  of  popular 
government.  But  one  thing  we  have  ignored  is  the  speech  we 
use  in  our  ordinary  relations  with  each  other.  We  also  have 
much  to  learn  in  pofiteness  to  one  another.  This  may  seem 
superficial  to  some,  but  nevertheless  it  is  important  especially 
in  our  family  life.  This  fife  is  not  made  up  of  grandstand  plays, 
and  we  have  to  determine  a  man's  character  by  Httle  things. 
The  oriental  and  Latin  races  have  many  Httle  courtesies  and 
thoughtful  acts,  which  go  to  make  everybody  happy,  and  let 
everj^one  get  all  there  is  out  of  life. 

"Another  trait  of  ours  which  we  should  be  well  rid  of  is  the 
tendency  to  question  each  other's  motives.  We  are  all  inclined 
to  see  nothing  but  bad  in  those  opposed  to  us,  and  nothing  but 
good  in  those  on  our  side.  But  life  is  too  short  for  all  this  con- 
demnation and  hatred.    It  is  only  a  waste  of  nervous  force  and 


THE   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   PROSE  31 

time,  and  is  a  constant  source  of  worry.  Absolutely  no  benefit 
is  derived  from  it. 

"I  do  not  claim  to  be  immune  from  this  same  tendency 
to  condemnation  and  questioning  motives.  More  than  once  I 
have  felt  that  some  man  was  dehberately  trying  to  injure  me, 
and  have  determined  to  get  even.  But  when  my  opportunity 
for  this  came  I  found  that  it  would  be  unmanly  of  me  to  take 
advantage  of  it. 

''So  I  urge  less  acrimony  in  public  discussion.  Don't  charge 
false  motives,  and  try  to  see  that  most  men  are  sincere  in  their 
actions.  I  am  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  try  to  behttle  the 
injustice  and  wrong  which  I  know  do  exist.  For  example,  I 
regret  to  say  that  our  method  of  prosecuting  criminals  is  one  of 
the  worst  things  in  this  country  to-day.  It  is  perfectly  just  to 
prosecute  a  man  for  his  crime  according  to  the  evidence,  but 
when  we  seek  to  ascribe  motives  for  the  crime  we  are  exceeding 
our  rights. 

"I  cannot  help  but  express,  in  the  presence  of  such  an  audi- 
ence, the  gratitude  I  feel  for  the  welcome  you  have  extended 
to  me,  and  for  the  motive  which  I  know  was  the  basis  for  this 
welcome.  In  showing  respect  for  the  office  I  hold  you  are  but 
expressing  the  great  love  you  have  for  your  country." 


V  CHAPTER  II 
THE  EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT 

One  who  has  followed  through  the  exercises  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  bending  all  his  energy,  perhaps  for 
the  first  time,  upon  an  attempt  to  grasp  the  essential 
thought  in  what  he  hears,  will  find  that  his  ability  to 
understand  a  talk  depends  upon  a  sense  of  connection. 
Once  he  "loses  the  thread,"  he  loses  all.  He  then  knows, 
either  that  he  has  misunderstood,  or  that  the  speaker  is 
incompetent.  There  must  be  an  evident  connection 
between  the  separate  parts;  there  must  be  such  an 
arrangement  that  from  beginning  to  end  things  seem  to 
have  been  composed  in  accordance  with  a  plan.  This 
connection,  however,  assumes  a  variety  of  forms,  some 
more  artificial  than  others,  and  each  valuable  for  certain 
purposes.  These  we  shall  next  attempt  to  study  and  to 
distinguish,  by  tracing  them  back  to  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  the  working  of  the  mind.  Then,  in  the  exercises, 
we  shall  try  to  detect  them  as  they  occur  in  prose. 

The  ability  to  speak  or  write  connectedly,  at  the  same 
time  following  a  larger  plan  for  the  connection  of  the  whole, 
is  not  altogether  a  gift  of  nature.  Indeed  it  is  acquired, 
by  most  people,  only  at  the  expense  of  long  training;  and 
usually  it  demands  laborious  study.  This  training  in 
some  degree  most  of  us  get.  In  our  mature  years  we  are 
all  able  to  control  more  or  less  the  action  of  our  minds 
and  to  guide  them  at  will  into  various  forms  of  mental 
gymnastics.  To  the  end,  however,  these  remain  some- 
what artificial  processes. 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT  33 

The  normal  working  of  our  minds,  when  not  under 
pressure  of  the  will,  is  by  no  means  so  ambitious.  At 
such  moments  we  are  little  more  than  spectators  at  a 
panorama.  Successive  mental  states  present  themselves 
before  our  attention  without  saying  **By  your  leave," 
and  we  are  controlled  by  them  till  they  are  pushed  out  by 
fresh  ideas.  Between  these  successive  feelings  and  pic- 
tures there  is  always  a  thread  of  connection,  slight  enough 
in  many  cases,  but  still  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  think 
of  each  as  dragging  its  successor  into  the  mind  by  some 
natural  bond  of  union.  Thus  the  student  seats  himself 
at  his  desk  to  prepare  a  lesson.  As  he  opens  his  book  his 
eye  falls  upon  a  penwiper,  the  gift  of  a  friend.  By  this 
suggestion  his  mind  passes  to  his  friend,  to  their  summer 
trip  together,  to  canoeing,  to  the  need  of  a  new  canoe,  to 
the  possibility  of  deserving  it  by  success  in  his  studies, 
and  so,  perhaps,  back  to  the  task  before  him.  His  thought, 
up  to  this  time,  has  run  naturally,  and  has  been  in  no  way 
forced  or  directed.  Now,  however,  he  opens  his  book, 
and  at  once  the  situation  changes.  From  this  moment 
he  must  exercise  his  will,  summoning,  comparing,  and 
arranging  ideas  as  best  he  may.  The  former  state  of 
mind  is  sometimes  called  reverie;  the  latter  is  known  as 
thinking. 

Behind  the  order  of  mental  pictures  presented  in 
reverie  there  is,  of  course,  no  rational  purpose,  but  merely 
accident.  Some  are  suggested  by  chance  associations, 
mere  whims  of  the  mind,  depending  on  the  personal 
character  and  past  experiences.  Thus  the  sight  of  a 
beet  may  suggest  to  one  a  fish  dinner,  to  another  a  chemical 
formula,  and  to  a  third  certain  arguments  for  a  high 
tariff  on  sugar.  Again  other  ideas  come  through  the 
senses.  These,  too,  occur  illogically,  in  any  order  in 
which  the  relations  of  time  and  space  may  happen  to 


34  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

present  the  objects  that  suggest  them.  The  events  of  a 
day,  or  the  sights  and  sounds  of  a  walk  through  city 
streets,  have  the  same  sort  of  relation  to  one  another  as 
have  the  bricks  in  a  pile  dumped  from  a  wagon.  Thus 
our  mental  material  is  tumbled  in  upon  us  in  confusion. 
Such  connection  as  exists  may  be  due  to  association. 
Then,  likely  enough,  it  is  so  roundabout  or  so  whimsical 
that  the  thinker  could  scarcely  explain  it,  even  to  himself. 
Again  it  may  be  physical  connection.  In  this  case  it 
depends  upon  the  pure  accident  of  how  events  in  the 
worid  about  us  happen  to  fall  out. 

Since  there  is  no  purpose  behind  the  order  in  which 
ideas  occur,  if  we  make  use  of  them  for  a  purpose,  —  to 
weave  them  into  a  story,  for  instance,  to  employ  them  to 
prove  a  point,  or  to  direct  them  toward  the  solution  of  a 
problem,  —  we  can  do  so  only  by  selection  and  arrange- 
ment. Of  all  selected  orders,  the  simplest,  the  least 
strained,  and  the  most  nearly  natural  is  narrative.  Here 
the  mind  so  chooses  and  arranges  ideas  that  in  the  main 
their  arrangement  is  governed  by  time.  Stories,  dealing 
with  both  fiction  and  fact,  fall  within  this  class;  but  so  in 
particular  cases  may  a  description,  an  explanation,  or  an 
argument.  We  may,  for  instance,  describe  a  four-cycle 
combustion  engine  in  narrative,  simply  by  following  the 
order  of  events  as  the  piston  moves.  A  large  part  of  our 
speaking,  as  well  as  of  our  writing,  is  in  this  sense  the 
teUing  of  stories;  and  it  is,  indeed,  the  most  effective 
part.  In  speaking,  particularly,  it  is  often  wise  to  throw 
the  outline  of  your  speech  into  the  narrative  form.  So  you 
catch  and  hold  your  hearers.  The  one  constant  subject  of 
thought  is  the  passage  of  time;  the  one  inevitable  connec- 
tion of  thought  is  the  time  order.  Thus  it  happens  that 
the  simplest  and  the  most  common  arrangement  of  thought 
is  that  which  expresses  itself  in  narrative. 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT   35 

No  well-told  narrative,  however,  relies  for  its  order 
wholly  upon  the  passage  of  time.  The  incidents  described 
are  usually  put  together  in  the  sequence  in  which  the 
events  occurred;  nevertheless  their  real  bond  of  union  is 
not  time.  Stories,  for  instance,  do  not  reproduce  all  that 
took  place  at  the  moment,  but  in  the  large  and  intricately 
woven  pattern  of  life  they  follow  a  single  thread.  The 
principle  which  holds  them  together  and  gives  them  the 
right  to  be  called  stories  is  the  purpose  which  guided 
the  selection  of  details.  Possibly  they  illustrate  character, 
or  prove  a  point,  or  further  the  development  of  some 
larger  plot.  There  must  be  some  aim  behind  them,  or 
else  they  serve  merely  to  fill  the  mouth  with  words. 
Precisely  the  same  thing  is  true  of  all  other  forms  of 
narrative.  We  demand  that  they  show  an  orderly  devel- 
opment and  a  conclusion.  In  the  effort  to  secure  these 
we  take  many  ideas  and  ''compose"  them,  or  put  them 
together  into  one.  Thus  even  the  most  elementary  of 
our  mental  processes  is  characteristic  of  all  the  rest.  It 
shows  the  real  labor  of  thought  to  be  a  labor  of  unification. 

A  second  selected  order  of  ideas  which  comes  very 
near  to  reality  and  actual  experience  is  that  which  depends 
on  the  relative  position  of  objects,  or  parts  of  objects, 
in  space.  This  sort  of  thinking,  expressed  in  words,  is 
called  description.  Descriptive  thinking  does  not,  how- 
ever, any  more  than  narrative,  make  use  of  the  crude 
reality.  The  eyes  and,  each  in  its  measure,  the  other 
senses  are  constantly  putting  the  thinker  in  contact  with 
fresh  experiences.  He  walks  from  the  railway  station  to 
his  suburban  home.  He  loses  his  overshoe  in  a  puddle, 
he  is  grazed  by  an  automobile,  he  finds  his  path  blocked 
by  a  city  gang  constructing  a  sewer.  So  far  there  is  no 
material  for  descriptive  thought  in  his  experience.  The 
puddle,  the  automobile,  the  excavation,  —  these  by  destiny 


36^  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

fall  together  in  the  same  street  at  the  same  moment. 
Their  conjunction  is  an  accident;  it  is  illogical.  If  now 
the  thinker  wants  to  make  logical  use  of  his  experiences, 
he  must  first  discover  some  principle  which  will  make 
them  one.  In  the  world  of  events  they  are  not  one,  but 
three;  his  principle,  therefore,  must  be  a  mental  principle, 
a  thought.  Perhaps  he  hits  upon  the  idea  that  here  are 
three  examples  of  the  trials  of  suburban  residence.  Then 
at  once  he  has  material  for  description.  If  he  is  a  witty 
fellow,  he  will  make  a  dinner-table  topic  of  it;  if  a  student, 
perhaps  a  theme.  In  either  case  the  thing  most  evident 
to  his  hearers  will  be  that  his  description  has  a  point. 
He  has  forced  his  idea  on  the  chaos  of  nature  and  created 
a  mental  unit.     Out  of  many  he  has  formed  one. 

The  natural  relations  of  objects  in  space  do  not,  of 
course,  always  appear  illogical.  It  is,  for  example,  for  the 
reasoning  faculty  an  accident  that  one  sees  a  tree  on  the 
top  of  a  hill,  but  not  an  accident  that  the  tree  bears  leaves. 
The  tree  is  an  individual,  and  all  the  natural  objects  that 
we  call  individuals,  from  a  crystal  to  the  human  body, 
stand  before  our  minds  as  representing  an  organization  of 
details  under  one  idea.  The  position  of  their  parts,  there- 
fore, may  be  said  to  have  a  kind  of  necessity  for  thought; 
in  knowing  what  function  the  leaf  performs  for  the  tree, 
or  the  arms  for  the  body,  we  see  the  logic  of  the  situation. 
In  a  similar  way  objects  constructed  by  man  convey  to 
our  thought  notions  of  the  purpose  behind  their  design. 
With  these  ideas  in  mind  it  is  possible  to  test  the  con- 
struction and  to  find  a  kind  of  common  sense,  a  reason- 
ableness or  the  lack  of  it,  in  the  relation  of  parts.  Even 
the  landscape  comes  through  perspective  to  represent  a 
thought.  As  its  appearance  depends  upon  the  position 
of  the  observer,  it  embodies,  from  whatever  point  one 
observes  it,  a  principle  of  unity.     Hence  the  beginner  can 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT   37 

compose  more  successfully  in  describing  a  scene,  a  build- 
ing, or  a  mechanical  device,  than  in  relating  the  incidents 
of  even  the  most  enjoyable  outing.  When  confronted 
with  a  series  of  events,  he  has  not  the  skill  to  connect 
them  through  a  central  idea.  Things  which  have  de- 
veloped naturally,  however,  or  been  constructed  by  man, 
present  a  simpler  problem.  Such  objects,  by  their  very 
appearance,  impose  upon  the  mind  a  sense  of  their  unity. 

Thus,  if  we  let  our  minds  take  their  own  course,  they 
lead  us  round  and  round  in  reverie.  They  merely  stray 
to  whatever  topic  makes  the  strongest  momentary  demand 
upon  the  attention,  and  from  whatever  is  unattractive 
they  turn  aside.  With  this  method,  if  we  get  anywhere, 
it  will  be  by  accident;  and  so  from  the  formation  of  our 
first  purposes  we  begin  to  see  the  need  of  a  different  proce- 
dure. After  that  time  the  progress  of  our  education  may 
be  measured  by  the  degree  of  our  ability  to  stop  these 
wanderings  of  the  mind.  There  are  some  attractive  ideas, 
we  learn,  which  must  be  shut  out,  at  least  for  the  moment, 
because  they  interfere  with  our  work.  In  this  business  of 
keeping  order  the  will  must  guide;  like  the  driver  of  a 
dog-team,  it  must  lash  and  coax  along  the  whole  wavering 
line.  To  give  it  the  power  and  the  skill  necessary  for 
this  strenuous  work  is  the  fundamental  task  of  education. 

In  this  education,  as  far  as  logic  deals  with  it,  the  first 
step  is  training  in  the  mental  processes  most  nearly  spon- 
taneous. The  student  will  learn  how  to  tell  a  story  so 
that  something  comes  of  it;  giving  enough  detail  to  suit 
his  purpose,  and  yet  introducing  nothing  except  what 
counts.  He  will  attempt  to  describe  things  so  that  they 
grow  up  in  the  mind  as  wholes.  Here,  in  a  way,  he  follows 
nature.  Yet  he  learns  that,  even  in  the  most  natural 
mental  processes,  though  thought  sometimes  adopts  an 
order  suggested  by  the  outside  world,  it  must  still  modify 


38  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

the  suggestion  to  suit  its  own  aim.  Behind  every  order 
of  thought  there  must  be  a  purpose;  and  the  existence 
of  a  purpose  should  be  a  sufl&cient  guarantee  that  all  the 
steps  in  the  mental  process  lead  toward  it.  ~ 

EXERCISES 

1 .  The  following  exercise  illustrates  the  natural  relations 
of  ideas.  It  was  the  author's  purpose,  not  to  write  a 
"theme,"  a  task  which  at  the  best  he  would  have  thought 
of  as  somewhat  artificial,  but  merely  to  reproduce  as 
fully  as  he  could  the  ideas  which  passed  through  his  mind 
during  the  time  described.  Since  his  memory  was  good, 
he  succeeded  in  putting  on  paper  a  fair  picture  of  the  mind 
when  it  is  not  on  dress  parade.  For  our  present  purpose 
nothing  could  be  more  helpful.  Study  the  sentences  to 
determine  how  one  thought  probably  suggested  another. 

I  may  as  well  go  hunting.  I  know  I  won't  get  a  thing,  for 
there  isn't  a  bird  within  ten  miles  of  here.  Where  is  my  hunt- 
ing jacket?  Oh,  yes,  it's  in  the  dark  closet.  I'll  probably 
get  into  the  pond,  for  the  ice  must  be  weak  over  the  springholes 
after  this  thaw.  I'd  better  pull  my  boots  up  high  before  I 
start.    Six  shells  will  be  enough. 

My!  but  it's  hard  walking!  Sink  way  through.  I  may  as 
well  load  the  gun  in  case  I  should  scare  up  anything.  Some- 
one ha^  been  along  here  recently.  I'll  bet  they  didn't  catch 
a  thing,  for  there  are  no  fish  in  the  pond  since  the  dam  broke 
last  summer  and  let  all  the  water  out.  My!  but  wasn't  it 
fine  fishing  then  when  the  pond  was  way  down!  Shot  a  par- 
tridge here  last  winter.  Wish  I  could  see  another  this  year, 
but  there  are  no  tracks  of  any  around.  Queer  there  are  no 
birds  this  year.  What  was  that?  Probably  some  of  those  little 
birds  over  in  that  thicket.  Wish  it  were  a  partridge.  Ouch! 
I  didn't  see  —  Whirr-r-r!  Oh!  it  was  a  partridge!  Oh!  con- 
found that  stump!    Why  did  I  fall?    The  only  one  I've  seen 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT   39 

this  year,  but  I'll  not  see  it  again;  it's  too  thoroughly  frightened, 
and  I'm  going  back  to  the  city  to-morrow.  Well,  if  that  isn't 
hard  luck!  To  see  the  only  bird  around  here  and  not  be  able  to 
get  even  a  shot  at  it!  There  ought  to  be  another  near,  but  there 
can't  or  it  would  have  flown  long  ago.  I  may  as  well  go  on  to 
the  pond  and  walk  around  the  edge.  Bet  I  break  through  when 
I  first  step  on  the  edge.  No,  the  ice  isn't  so  thin  as  I  thought. 
Wonder  where  that  partridge  flew?  I  didn't  notice  the  direc- 
tion. Hello!  there  are  three  men  fishing  through  the  ice.  I'll 
go  over  and  speak  to  them. 

''Hello!  Caught  anything?"  "No.  Just  come."  "How 
many  traps  you  got  out?"  "Twenty."  "I  don't  believe 
you'll  get  much,  because,  you  know,  the  dam  broke  last  summer, 
the  pond  went  way  down,  many  of  the  fish  were  caught,  and  a 
good  many  went  through  the  dam.  Say,  where  did  you  get 
the  minnows  for  bait?"  "Caught  them  this  fall  and  kept  them 
in  a  brook  behind  the  house."  "I'd  like  to  know  where  I  could 
get  some.  Know  of  any?"  "What  do  you  want  of  minnows 
if  there  are  no  fish  in  the  pond  here?"  "Oh,  I  shouldn't  fish 
here."  "Where  then?"  "That's  a  secret.  Well,  I  wish  you 
luck." 

Those  fellows  won't  catch  a  fish  if  they  stay  there  till  dooms- 
day. My!  but  I'd  hke  to  scare  up  a  bird  along  here.  I  couldn't 
help  getting  him  before  he  got  to  the  top  of  that  hill.  Crack! 
Oh,  but  that  water's  cold!  I'll  look  where  I'm  going  and  not 
get  into  another  springhole.  Those  look  like  duck  tracks. 
They  are.  Must  be  staying  up  where  the  brook  comes  in  from 
the  pond.  I'd  go  up,  but  the  ice  is  always  so  thin  and  treach- 
erous up  that  way.  I  got  in  there  last  winter  while  racing. 
Wish  I  hadn't  been  ahead  then;  Richards  would  have  gone  in 
instead.  I  may  as  well  go  up  and  see  Richards  while  I  am  about 
it.    I  wonder  how  he  hkes  working  in  the  mill,  sawing  logs? 

2.  The  following  story,  from  the  fifth  chapter  of  Second 
Kings,  is  an  admirable  example  of  a  narrative  nearly  per- 
fect in  method.  Notice  the  omissions  and  try  to  account 
for  them.    Can  you  state  the  purpose  of  the  narrative, 


40  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

in  the  form  of  a  moral  or  otherwise?  How  far  is  the  form 
of  the  narrative  governed  by  this  purpose?  In  particular, 
is  the  second  incident  part  of  the  first  in  purpose  or  a 
separate  story? 

Now  Naaman,  captain  of  the  host  of  the  king  of  Syria,  was 
a  great  man  with  his  master,  and  honourable,  because  ,by  him 
the  Lord  had  given  victory  unto  Syria:  he  was  also  a  mighty 
man  of  valour,  but  he  was  a  leper.  And  the  Syrians  had  gone 
out  in  bands,  and  had  brought  away  captive  out  of  the  land  of 
Israel  a  little  maid;  and  she  waited  on  Naaman's  wife.  And 
she  said  unto  her  mistress,  Would  God  my  lord  were  with  the 
prophet  that  is  in  Samaria!  then  would  he  recover  him  of  his 
leprosy.  And  one  went  in,  and  told  his  lord,  saying,  Thus  and 
thus  said  the  maid  that  is  of  the  land  of  Israel.  And  the  king 
of  S)rria  said,  Go  to,  go,  and  I  will  send  a  letter  unto  the  king 
of  Israel.  And  he  departed,  and  took  with  him  ten  talents  of 
silver,  and  six  thousand  pieces  of  gold,  and  ten  changes  of 
raiment. 

And  he  brought  the  letter  to  the  king  of  Israel,  saying,  And 
now  when  this  letter  is  come  unto  thee,  behold,  I  have  sent  Naa- 
man my  servant  to  thee,  that  thou  mayest  recover  him  of  his 
leprosy.  And  it  came  to  pass,  when  the  king  of  Israel  had  read 
the  letter,  that  he  rent  his  clothes,  and  said,  Am  I  God,  to  kill 
and  to  make  alive,  that  this  man  doth  send  unto  me  to  recover 
a  man  of  his  leprosy?  but  consider,  I  pray  you,  and  see  how  he 
seeketh  a  quarrel  against  me.  And  it  was  so,  when  Elisha 
the  man  of  God  heard  that  the  king  of  Israel  had  rent  his  clothes, 
that  he  sent  to  the  king,  saying,  Wherefore  hast  thou  rent  thy 
clothes?  Let  him  come  now  to  me,  and  he  shall  know  that 
there  is  a  prophet  in  Israel.  So  Naaman  came  with  his  horses 
and  with  his  chariots,  and  stood  at  the  door  of  the  house  of 
Elisha.  And  Elisha  sent  a  messenger  unto  him,  sa5ang.  Go  and 
wash  in  Jordan  seven  times,  and  thy  flesh  shall  come  again  to 
thee,  and  thou  shalt  be  clean.  But  Naaman  was  wroth,  and 
went  away,  and  said,  Behold,  I  thought.  He  will  surely  come 
out  to  me,  and  stand  and  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  his  God, 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT   41 

and  wave  his  hand  over  the  place,  and  recover  the  leper.  Are 
not  Abanah  and  Pharpar,  the  rivers  of  Damascus,  better  than 
all  the  waters  of  Israel?  may  I  not  wash  in  them,  and  be  clean? 
So  he  turned  and  went  away  in  a  rage.  And  his  servants  came 
near,  and  spake  unto  him,  and  said,  My  father,  if  the  prophet 
had  bid  thee  do  some  great  thing,  wouldest  thou  not  have  done 
it?  how  much  rather  then,  when  he  saith  to  thee.  Wash,  and 
be  clean?  Then  went  he  down,  and  dipped  himself  seven  times 
in  Jordan,  according  to  the  saying  of  the  man  of  God;  and  his 
flesh  came  again  hke  unto  the  flesh  of  a  little  child,  and  he  was 
clean. 

And  he  returned  to  the  man  of  God,  he  and  all  his  company, 
and  came,  and  stood  before  him:  and  he  said.  Behold  now,  I 
know  that  there  is  no  God  in  all  the  earth,  but  in  Israel:  now 
therefore,  I  pray  thee,  take  a  present  of  thy  servant.  But  he 
said.  As  the  Lord  Hveth,  before  whom  I  stand,  I  will  receive 
none.  And  he  urged  him  to  take  it;  but  he  refused.  And 
Naaman  said,  If  not,  yet  I  pray  thee  let  there  be  given  to  thy 
servant  two  mules'  burden  of  earth;  for  thy  servant  will  hence- 
forth offer  neither  burnt  offering  nor  sacrifice  imto  other  gods, 
but  unto  the  Lord.  In  this  thing  the  Lord  pardon  thy  servant; 
when  my  master  goeth  into  the  house  of  Rimmon  to  worship 
there,  and  he  leaneth  on  my  hand,  and  I  bow  myself  in  the  house 
of  Rimmon,  when  I  bow  myseK  in  the  house  of  Rimmon,  the 
Lord  pardon  thy  servant  in  this  thing.  And  he  said  unto  him. 
Go  in  peace.    So  he  departed  from  him  a  little  way. 

But  Gehazi,  the  servant  of  Ehsha  the  man  of  God,  said. 
Behold,  my  master  hath  spared  this  Naaman  the  Syrian,  in  not 
receiving  at  his  hands  that  which  he  brought:  as  the  Lord 
liveth,  I  will  run  after  him,  and  take  somewhat  of  him.  So  Gehazi 
followed  after  Naaman.  And  when  Naaman  saw  him  running 
after  him,  he  lighted  down  from  the  chariot  to  meet  him,  and 
said,  Is  all  well?  And  he  said.  All  is  well.  My  master  hath  sent 
me,  saying,  Behold,  even  now  there  be  come  to  me  from  the  hill 
country  of  Ephraim  two  young  men  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets; 
give  them,  I  pray  thee,  a  talent  of  silver,  and  two  changes  of 
raiment.     And  Naaman  said.  Be   content,  take  two  talents. 


42  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

And  he  urged  him,  and  bound  two  talents  of  silver  in  two  bags, 
with  two  changes  of  raiment,  and  laid  them  upon  two  of  his 
servants;  and  they  bare  them  before  him.  And  when  he  came 
to  the  hill,  he  took  them  from  their  hand,  and  bestowed  them 
in  the  house:  and  he  let  the  men  go,  and  they  departed.  But 
he  went  in,  and  stood  before  his  master.  And  Elisha  said  unto 
him,  Whence  comest  thou,  Gehazi?  And  he  said,  Thy  servant 
went  no  whither.  And  he  said  unto  him.  Went  not  mine  heart 
with  thee,  when  the  man  turned  again  from  his  chariot  to  meet 
thee?  Is  it  a  time  to  receive  money,  and  to  receive  garments, 
and  ohve-yards  and  vineyards,  and  sheep  and  oxen,  and  men- 
servants  and  maidservants?  The  leprosy  therefore  of  Naaman 
shall  cleave  unto  thee,  and  unto  thy  seed  for  ever.  And  he 
went  out  from  his  presence  a  leper  as  white  as  snow. 

3.  Determine  how  far  the  order  and  connections  in  the 
follovsing  passage  depend  upon  the  natural  order  of  obser- 
vation.  Would  any  other  order  —  a  logical  one  —  be  better? 

A  bevel  grinder  is  a  machine  for  putting  a  bevelled  edge  on 
planer  knives,  splitting  knives,  and  any  knife  which  has  a  long, 
straight  edge.  Though  at  first  appearance  the  machine  looks 
too  small  to  be  of  any  important  use,  it  is  a  paying  machine. 
That  which  attracts  attention  toward  the  machine  is  a  large 
emery  wheel  about  three  feet  ui  diameter  and  two  inches  in 
thickness;  and  a  long,  narrow  iron  table  in  front  of  the  wheel. 
The  shape  of  the  frame  is  like  that  of  an  inverted  cow-bell, 
with  two  arms  at  the  top  which  act  as  supports  for  the  shaft 
of  the  emery  wheel. 

At  the  left  end  of  the  shaft  on  which  the  emery  wheel  is  are 
two  pulleys,  one  loose,  the  other  fixed  to  the  axis.  At  the  other 
end  is  a  wide-faced  pulley,  over  which  passes  a  small  belt  to 
three  one-inch-face  pulleys,  which  are  on  a  second  shaft  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  frame.  Two  of  these  three  pulleys  are  attached 
to  gears  inside  the  frame.  The  inner  one,  or  one  next  the  frame, 
has  a  hollow  axis  which  revolves  upon  the  shaft  of  the  outer 
pulley.    The  gears  of  these  pulleys  act  on  diametrically  oppo- 


EXTERNAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT  43 

site  points  of  a  large  gear,  so  that,  when  both  pulleys  turn  in  the 
same  direction,  they  produce  opposite  motions  upon  the  large 
gear,  since  they  are  two  forces  acting  on  diametrically  opposite 
points  of  a  circumference.  The  shaft  of  this  large  gear  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  shaft  of  the  three  pulleys,  and  extends  to  the  front 
of  the  machine,  inside  the  table,  and  ends  in  a  small  gear  which 
acts  on  a  long,  geared  plate  fixed  to  the  inside  of  the  table.  This 
table  sHdes  upon  a  projection  from  the  frame,  and  is  furnished 
with  a  top  which  can  be  tipped  to  any  angle  in  order  to  get 
any  length  of  bevel,  and  which  can  be  pushed  by  screws  toward 
or  away  from  the  emery  wheel.  In  the  front  part  of  the  table 
are  two  adjustable  nuts,  which  sHde  in  a  horizontal  slot  and  can 
be  adjusted  so  as  to  have  any  distance  between  them,  from  six 
inches  to  the  length  of  the  table.  On  the  inside  of  the  table 
these  nuts  are  attached  to  iron  knobs.  As  the  table  sHdes  right 
and  left  these  knobs  alternately  strike  the  arm  of  a  lever  which 
is  fixed  in  the  frame  of  the  machine  and  move  the  lever  first  one 
way,  then  back.  The  other  arm  of  this  lever  ends  in  a  loop 
through  which  passes  the  small  belt,  so  that  when  the  lever  is 
moved  back  and  forth  it  moves  this  belt  from  the  inner  to  the 
outer  of  the  three  small  pulleys,  thus  continually  reversing  the 
movement  of  the  large  gear,  and  consequently  moving  the  table 
back  and  forth  before  the  emery  wheel,  and  by  this  means 
grinding  the  knife  evenly  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

Now  let  us  go  over  the  motion  of  the  whole  machine.  Sup- 
pose the  knife  to  be  ground  is  clamped  on  the  table  and  adjusted, 
and  that  the  table  is  as  far  to  the  left  as  it  can  go.  Then  the 
inner  arm  of  the  lever  is  against  the  right-hand  nut  of  the  table 
and  the  small  belt  is  on  the  inner  of  the  three  small  pulleys. 
Now  start  the  machine  by  pushing  the  main  belt  upon  the  main 
fixed  pulley  of  the  emery-wheel  shaft,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
fix  the  left-hand  nut  just  below  the  left-hand  end  of  the  knife. 
As  the  emery  wheel  turns,  it  turns,  by  means  of  the  small  belt 
on  the  wide  pulley,  the  inner  small  pulley.  This  gives  a  counter- 
clockwise motion  to  the  large  gear,  and  this  pushes  the  table 
to  the  right.  When  the  emery  wheel  strikes  the  knife,  it  grinds 
away  from  the  edge  and  passes  along  the  length  of  the  knife. 


44  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

As  the  table  passes  to  the  right,  the  left  iron  knob  strikes  the 
arm  of  the  lever  while  the  emery  wheel  passes  beyond  the  left- 
hand  end  of  the  knife,  and  pushes  the  small  belt  from  the  inner 
pulley,  over  the  loose  middle  one,  and  upon  the  outer  pulley. 
This  pulley  gives  a  clockwise  motion  to  the  large  gear  and  the 
table  is  pushed  back  again  to  the  left;  the  emery  wheel  grinds 
backward  over  the  knife,  until  the  wheel  passes  over  the  right- 
hand  end  of  the  knife;  when  the  right-hand  nut  strikes  the 
lever  arm  and  forces  the  small  belt  over  on  the  inner  pulley. 
Thus  the  machine  takes  care  of  itself. 


'chapter  III 
THE  MENTAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT 

If  we  set  a  beginner  in  composition  to  thinking  about 
some  period  of  time  through  which  he  has  lived,  or  about 
some  object  which  he  has  seen,  he  finds  it  an  easy  matter 
to  deal  with  these  things  part  by  part,  in  a  connected  way. 
He  merely  follows  the  order  of  time,  or  explains  one  thing 
after  another,  in  accordance  with  the  position  in  which 
he  saw  them.  Much  of  his  work  is  already  done  for  him. 
Though  nature  does  not  suggest  the  point  of  his  story  or 
description,  it  at  least  furnishes  a  means  of  connecting 
the  parts.  Suppose,  however,  that  his  task  concerns  the 
treatment  of  an  abstract  topic.  It  may  have  occurred 
to  him,  perhaps,  to  deal  with  his  own  views  on  national 
politics.  This  subject  is  before  him,  not  as  an  existing 
thing  to  be  worked  over  to  suit  his  purpose,  but  merely  as 
a  possibility.  He  has  read  the  papers,  talked  with  his 
father,  and  argued  with  his  friends;  he  begins  to  realize 
that  he  will  soon  be  old  enough  to  vote.  Here,  then,  is 
an  idea  capable  of  development.  He  feels  that  he  can 
probably  join  to  it  enough  details  to  give  it  some  force. 
The  composition  of  these  details  is  clearly  possible,  if  he 
can  get  the  right  connection.  This  connection,  however, 
is  a  purely  mental  thing.  If  it  satisfies  him  when  achieved, 
if  he  thinks  it  right,  that  will  be  merely  because  it  repre- 
sents one  of  those  steps  in  thinking  which  his  mind  is 
accustomed  to  take. 

What,   then,   are  the  accustomed  steps  in  thinking? 


46  THE  ORDER    OF  STATEMENTS 

Without  attempting  to  exhaust  the  list,  we  may  call 
attention  to  five,  so  generally  employed  that  with  these 
alone  we  may  analyze  any  piece  of  prose  and  show  the 
relations  of  its  parts,  thought  by  thought,  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  every  practical  end.  It  has  occurred,  for 
instance,  to  our  writer  on  politics  that  he  can  develop 
his  subject  by  bringing  out  the  details.  He  will  speak 
separately  of  his  views  on  the  two  great  parties,  on  the 
progressive  and  insurgent  movements,  and  on  the  place 
of  national  politics  in  local  affairs.  In  such  a  plan  there 
will  be  an  obvious  connection,  for  the  subheadings  bear 
to  the  main  topic  the  relation  of  part  to  whole.  This  is 
an  accustomed  relation  of  thought.  The  mind  passes 
easily  back  and  forth  between  details  and  a  comprehen- 
sive statement.  Through  this  sort  of  connection,  the 
parts  of  a  composition  are  brought  together  in  a  summary, 
or  foreshadowed  in  an  introduction;  specific  instances  lead 
to  a  general  law;  and  an  illustration  or  concrete  example 
is  easily  connected  with  the  thought  it  is  supposed  to 
enforce.  In  short,  the  relation  of  whole  and  part  is  one 
of  those  most  commonly  used  in  thinking. 

Again,  suppose  the  writer  to  have  made  a  statement 
which  he  thinks  not  quite  self-explanatory,  or  which  seems 
too  important  to  be  limited  to  a  single  sentence.  He 
then  proceeds  to  put  the  same  idea  later  in  another  form 
of  words.  Perhaps  he  prefaces  the  new  sentence  with 
some  such  phrase  as,  "That  is  to  say."  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, no  connective  words  are  required,  for  this  sort  of 
connection  also  seems  to  the  mind  quite  simple  and 
natural.  The  same  relation  exists,  in  a  mechanically 
constructed  paragraph,  between  the  introductory  state- 
ment and  the  conclusion.  We  may  call  it,  for  lack  of  a 
better  term,  the  relation  of  equivalence. 

The  third  of  these  accustomed  steps  in  thinking  is 


MENTAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT   47 

comparison.  This  may  result  in  a  sense  of  similarity  or 
of  contrast.  Thus,  perhaps,  it  will  occur  to  the  writer  on 
politics  to  show  the  apathy  of  American  college  students 
towards  political  subjects.  This  he  may  do  by  calling 
attention  to  the  hot-headed  activity  of  certain  groups  in 
continental  universities.  In  this  method  of  developing 
the  topic  is  an  instance  of  contrast.  Or  again,  in  speaking 
of  the  corrupt  politics  of  recent  times,  he  may  show  that 
this  condition  is  not  merely  a  modern  evil,  and  refer  to 
earlier  examples,  as  carpet-bagging  or  the  Tweed  ring. 
These  instances  will  then  stand  to  his  subject  in  the  rela- 
tion of  similarity.  Comparison,  in  general,  is  a  powerful 
mental  bond.  So  far  is  this  true  that  it  has  been  made 
the  basis  of  many  rhetorical  tricks.  The  balanced  sen- 
tence, for  instance,  is  one  of  the  last  of  these  to  retain 
popular  favor.  In  ordinary  prose,  also,  no  relation  more 
frequently  occurs  than  that  of  contrast;  and  the  most 
overworked  of  all  connective  words  is  "however." 

The  remaining  two  relations,  that  of  cause  and  effect, 
and  that  of  reason  and  conclusion,  though  sometimes  hard 
to  distinguish,  are  on  the  whole  easily  recognized.  If,  for 
instance,  the  student  wishes  to  explain  why  he  started  his 
political  career  as  a  strong  Republican,  he  will  perhaps 
refer  to  his  father's  views,  or  the  general  feeling  among 
his  friends,  or  the  editorial  position  of  the  newspaper  he 
used  to  read.  These  were  causes — that  is,  preceding  con- 
ditions— which  prepared  his  mind  for  the  attitude  he 
took.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  were  stating  a  matter  of 
opinion,  and  not  a  matter  of  fact,  he  might  try  to  justify  it 
with  reasons.  He  might,  for  instance,  attempt  to  show  that 
the  political  influence  of  the  newspapers  is  on  the  whole 
good,  and  back  up  his  assertion  with  the  statement  that 
they  give  publicity  to  all  minor  offenses,  and  so  hold  petty 
graft  in  check.  This  is  the  relation  of  reason  and  conclusion. 


48  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

There  are,  then,  five  important  relations  of  thought: 
that  of  whole  and  part,  that  of  equivalence,  that  of  com- 
parison, that  of  cause  and  effect,  and  that  of  reason  and 
conclusion.  In  their  simplest  meaning  these  are  all  so 
familiar  as  to  require  almost  no  explanation.  They  may 
conveniently  be  studied  in  any  piece  of  prose  which  is 
not  narrative  or  description.  There  they  will  be  detected 
as  a  kind  of  principle  which  binds  the  preceding  idea  with 
that  which  follows.  Reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  this 
principle  will  generally  prove  to  be  one  of  the  relations 
mentioned  above.  Consider,  for  instance,  the  following 
passage  from  Milton. 

"  A  wealthy  man,  addicted  to  his  pleasure  and  to  his  profits, 
finds  religion  to  be  a  traffic  so  entangled  that  of  all  mysteries 
he  cannot  skill  to  keep  a  stock  going  upon  that  trade.  What 
should  he  do?  Fain  he  would  have  the  name  to  be  religious, 
fain  he  would  bear  up  with  his  neighbours  in  that.  What  does 
he,  therefore,  but  resolves  to  give  over  toiling,  and  to  find  him- 
self out  some  factor,  to  whose  care  and  credit  he  may  conunit 
the  whole  managing  of  his  religious  affairs;  some  divine  of  note 
and  estimation  that  must  be.  To  him  he  adheres,  resigns  the 
whole  warehouse  of  his  religion,  with  all  the  locks  and  keys, 
into  his  custody;  and  indeed  makes  the  very  person  of  that  man 
his  religion;  esteems  his  associating  with  him  a  sufficient  evi- 
dence and  conunendatory  of  his  own  piety!  So  that  a  man 
may  say  his  reUgion  is  now  no  more  within  himself,  but  is  be- 
come a  dividual  movable,  and  goes  and  comes  near  him,  accord- 
ing as  that  good  man  frequents  his  house.  He  entertains  him, 
gives  him  gifts,  feasts  him,  lodges  him;  his  religion  comes  home  at 
night,  prays,  is  liberally  supped,  and  sumptuously  laid  to  sleep; 
rises,  is  saluted,  and  after  the  malmsey,  or  some  well-spiced 
bruage,  and  better  breakfasted,  than  He  whose  morning  appetite 
would  have  gladly  fed  on  green  figs  between  Bethany  and  Jeru- 
salem, his  religion  walks  abroad  at  eight,  and  leaves  his  kind 
entertainer  in  the  shop  trading  all  day  without  his  religion." 


MENTAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT    49 

In  this  bit  of  reasoning,  the  first  idea  and  the  second 
are  in  contrast.  ReHgion  is  more  than  he  can  attend  to; 
yet  too  important  to  be  given  over.  The  next  thought 
explains  a  situation  which  arises  from  this  state  of  things 
as  a  result  from  a  cause.  Since  he  cannot  attend  to  it 
himself,  he  turns  it  over  to  a  factor.  The  details  of  his 
treatment  of  the  factor  merely  elaborate  the  thought  that 
he  employs  one.  Here  is  an  illustration  of  the  relation 
of  whole  and  part.  Again,  the  sentence  which  begins, 
*'  So  that  a  man  may  say  his  religion  is  now  no  more  within 
himself, "  is  developed  as  a  logical  consequence  of  the  idea 
which  precedes.  It  is  a  conclusion  drawn  from  the  reason 
that  he  has  hired  another  to  impersonate  him.  Or  it  may 
be  thought  of  as  equivalent  to  it,  another  way  of  putting 
the  substance  of  the  same  idea. 

Such,  then,  are  the  logical  couplings  of  thought.  Though 
not  always  so  distinct  and  evident  as  in  the  passage  above, 
they  repeat  themselves  again  and  again  through  all  prose. 
With  the  simple  exercise  of  learning  to  detect  and  to  dis- 
tinguish them  the  practice  of  logic  properly  begins.  A 
study  of  the  relations  of  thought  in  their  general  form, 
and  the  attempt  to  apply  them  to  the  analysis  of  written 
work,  should  prove  a  valuable  mental  training.  The 
general  relation  of  thought  is  always  disguised  as  the  con- 
nection of  two  particular  ideas,  dressed  out  in  particular 
phrases;  and  it  comes  upon  you  thus  when  you  are 
thinking  of  other  things.  In  the  exercises  which  follow 
this  chapter  and  the  next,  one  must  learn  to  penetrate 
this  disguise.  This  work  should  greatly  increase  the  power 
of  abstract  thought.  At  the  same  time  such  training  has 
a  practical  value.  When  the  outline  of  ideas  for  an  essay 
is  being  assembled,  and  again  later,  in  the  attempt  to 
rewrite  and  improve  incoherent  passages,  no  acquirement 
can  be  more  helpful  than  the  habit  of  seeing  at  once  the 


50  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

general  form  of  the  thought  relation.  It  will  enable  the 
writer  to  rearrange  his  material  and  to  connect  it  in  a 
logical  way. 

EXERCISES 

1,  What  relation  of  thought  governs  the  connection 
between  the  following  sentences? 

(o)  He  hoped  that  his  work  might  amount  to  something 
more  than  mere  imitatidn.  He  felt  that  plenty  of  people  were 
engaged  in  that  already. 

(6)  He  maintains  that  the  only  way  a  man  of  average  abil- 
ity can  get  on  in  these  days  is  by  having  a  "pull."  This  I  deny 
in  general  and  in  particular. 

(c)  I  admit  that  his  manners  are  awkward  and  his  conversa- 
tion heavy.  Still,  whenever  he  comes  into  the  room,  you  are 
glad  to  see  liim. 

(d)  The  articles  of  my  belief  are  two.  First,  no  man  can 
thoroughly  learn  a  thing  unless  he  Hkes  it;  he  can  know  only 
what  his  disposition  fits  him  for.  Second,  no  matter  how  much 
you  commit  to  memory,  you  will  be  none  the  wiser  till  you  come 
to  use  what  you  have  acquired. 

(e)  He  made  no  secret  of  his  self-conceit.  When  a  case  went 
against  him,  he  attributed  his  defeat  to  the  stupidity  of  the 
jury.  All  the  cases  he  won  he  said  were  won  by  pure  force 
of  wit. 

(/)  It  is  foolish  for  us  to  complain  because  we  fancy  our- 
selves not  appreciated  by  a  teacher  or  an  employer.  When  we 
consider  how  busy  other  people  are,  and  how  self-centered,  it 
appears  a  wonder  that  they  notice  us  at  all  unless  we  force  it. 
We  ought  constantly  to  remember  how  much  more  important 
we  seem  to  ourselves  than  we  possibly  could  be  to  them. 

(g)  The  time  has  passed  when  people  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances can  manage  the  government  with  the  main  object  of 
keeping  comfortable.  There  are  now  too  many  ways  in  which 
those  who  are  uncomfortable  can  combine  to  make  their  views 
prevail. 


MENTAL  CONNECTIONS  OF  THOUGHT    51 

{h)  If  you  have  never  lived  near  a  railroad  track,  you  do 
not  know  what  noise  is.  Whistles  blow,  bells  ring,  and  engines 
puff  from  morning  to  night. 

2:  Study  the  thought  relations  which  connect  the 
sentences  in  the  following  paragraphs.  Rewrite  the 
paragraphs,  supplying  connecting  words  and  phrases  or 
recasting  sentences  so  as  best  to  express  the  thought 
relations. 

(a)  My  greatest  difficulty  is  in  getting  started  to  write  a 
theme.  I  find  that  all  my  thoughts  have  spoiled  on  my  hands 
the  minute  I  sit  down  to  begin.  I  was  intending  to  write  of 
the  last  football  game,  for  instance;  I  can  think  of  nothing  except 
what  the  Herald  said  in  its  editorial.  I  have  to  give  up  that 
subject.  I  may  have  thought  that  I  would  tell  a  funny  thing 
that  happened  to  me  lately;  I  seem  to  remember  that  I  have 
read  the  same  joke  somewhere  in  a  paper.  There  is  always 
some  scruple  to  keep  me  from  writing  the  first  sentence.  My 
trouble  all  vanishes  if  I  can  only  get  through  that  first  sentence. 

(5)  Small  schools  and  colleges  ought  to  combine  in  circuits 
and  hire  their  teachers  in  common.  <  It  would  enable  the  pro- 
fessor to  get  exercise  like  a  country  doctor,  riding  about  in  a 
gig.  This  would  keep  his  head  clear  for  the  lecture.  It  might 
necessitate  confining  the  classes  to  one  lecture  a  day,  as  Dr. 
Smith  on  Tuesday  in  Greek,  Dr.  Jones  on  Wednesday  in  Cal- 
culus, and  so  on;  but  one  clever  lecture  would  be  better  for 
them  than  many  dull  ones,  tfhe  advantages  would  be  many. 
For  the  pupil,  it  would  mean  competent  instruction  and  a  fre- 
quent change  of  masters.  The  teachers  would  get  the  pay  they 
deserve,  and  would  not  be  turned  into  mere  police  officers. 

3.  Analyze  and  explain  the  relations  of  thought  which 
connect  the  ideas  in  the  following  extract. 

There  are  three  places  where  one  may  draw  the  line  for  get- 
ting a  piece  of  work  done.  One  man  draws  it  habitually  a  few 
minutes  or  hours  or  days  after  it  is  due.    He  is  always  in  dis- 


52  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

tress,  and  is  a  nuisance  to  everybody  else.  There  is  no  dignity 
in  a  life  that  is  as  perpetually  behind  its  opportunities  as  a  tail 
is  in  the  rear  of  a  dog. 

It  is  very  risky — ethically  speaking  it  is  cowardly  —  to  draw 
the  line  at  the  exact  date  when  the  work  is  due;  for  then  one  is 
at  the  mercy  of  any  accident  or  interruption  that  may  overtake 
him  at  the  end  of  his  allotted  time.  If  he  is  sick  or  a  friend 
dies,  or  unforeseen  compUcations  arise,  he  is  as  badly  off  as  the 
man  who  deliberately  planned  to  be  late,  and  almost  as  much 
to  blame.  For  a  man  who  leaves  the  possibility  of  accident 
and  interruption  out  of  account,  and  stakes  the  welfare  of  him- 
self and  others  on  such  miscalculation,  is  neither  wise  nor  just; 
he  is  reckless  rather  than  brave.  Even  if  accidents  do  not  come, 
he  is  walking  on  the  perilous  edge  all  the  time;  his  work  is  done 
in  a  fever  of  haste  and  anxiety,  injurious  alike  to  the  quality  of 
the  work  and  the  health  of  the  worker. 

The  man  who  puts  the  courage  of  punctuality  into  his  work 
will  draw  the  line  for  finishing  a  piece  of  work  a  safe  period 
inside  the  time  when  it  is  actually  due.  If  one  forms  the  habit 
and  sticks  to  it,  it  is  no  harder  to  have  work  done  ten  days,  or 
at  least  one  day,  ahead  of  time  than  to  finish  it  at  the  last  allow- 
able moment.  Then,  if  anything  happens,  it  does  no  harm. 
This  habit  will  save  literary  workers  an  incalculable  amount 
of  anxiety  and  worry.  And  it  is  the  wear  and  tear  of  worry  and 
hurry,  not  the  amount  of  calm,  quiet  work,  that  kills  such  men 
before  their  time.' 

'  Hyde,  "  The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Reprinted 
by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  LOGICAL  OUTLINE 

That  a  piece  of  prose  should  be  logically  connected 
sentence  by  sentence  is  not  the  whole  requirement.  We 
think,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  whenever  our 
ideas  succeed  one  another  in  any  rational,  definite  relations, 
when  the  individual  steps  in  the  process  are  in  accord  with 
some  familiar  connection  of  thought.  In  the  deeper  sense, 
however,  no  thinking  is  efficient  unless  logic  governs,  not 
only  its  parts,  but  its  whole  extent.  It  must  be,  from 
beginning  to  end,  adapted  to  produce  the  result  that  the ' 
thinker  desires;  it  must  be  from  beginning  to  end  in  some 
sense  a  unit.  We  need  to  consider,  therefore,  not  only  the 
logic  of  connection,  but  the  logic  of  the  outline. 

The  logic  of  the  outline  is  often  complex,  and  difficult 
to  state  in  a  simple  and  general  form.  This,  however, 
should  not  be  the  case  with  brief  trains  of  thought,  and  is 
frequently  not  the  case  with  effective  ones.  Simplicity 
of  plan  is  often  of  prime  importance,  particularly  in  speech; 
and  we  shall  usually  find  that  compositions  which  strike 
us  as  clear,  well-arranged,  and  well-knit  have  as  their 
fundamental  principle  some  one  of  the  five  mental  con- 
nections of  thought  already  studied.  They  may  be  con- 
cerned, for  instance,  in  comparing  two  individuals  or 
plans,  in  giving  reasons  for  a  statement,  or  in  illustrating 
a  point.  Makers  of  rhetorics  have  taken  advantage  of 
this  fact  to  subdivide  all  writing,  according  to  the  principle 
behind  its  outline,  into  the  four  groups  of  description, 


54  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

narration,  argument,  and  exposition.  These  are  difficult 
to  define  in  theory  and  impossible  to  keep  separate  in 
practice;  and  the  choice  among  them  was  never  any  part 
of  a  literary  worker's  troubles.  One  can  imagine  an  en- 
gineer, put  in  charge  of  construction  work  for  a  railroad, 
who  should  say  to  himself,  "I  have  heard  that  suspension 
bridges  are  interesting  structures,  but  never  had  the  good 
luck  to  build  one.  I  am  resolved,  therefore,  that  my  work 
during  March  and  April  shall  illustrate  this  type  of  con- 
struction." We  should  be  disposed  to  advise  him  to 
find  out  where  the  road  was  going,  then  look  at  the  lay 
of  the  land,  and  build  in  each  spot  accordingly.  Such  a 
man,  with  his  recollection  of  school  theory,  would  be 
starting  at  entirely  the  wrong  end  of  his  problem.  Pre- 
cisely so  it  is  with  any  student  who  sets  to  work  to  fill  in 
an  empty  logical  outline  with  ideas. 

Such,  however,  is  the  style  of  work  usually  required  of 
beginners  in  composition.  When  they  are  allowed  to 
graduate  from  narrative  and  description,  an  attempt  is 
made  to  pin  down  their  wandering  speculations  to  a  single 
relation  of  thought.  They  are  asked,  perhaps,  to  contrast 
CsBsar  and  Napoleon;  or  to  set  down  all  the  reasons  that 
occur  to  them  why  a  public  school  is  inferior  to  a  private. 
The  latter  sort  of  outline  is  elaborated  later  into  what  the 
dialect  of  law  and  argumentation  calls  a  "brief."  It 
represents  the  relation  of  reason  and  conclusion.  The 
relation  of  whole  and  part,  in  particular,  is  especially  well 
fitted  to  hold  together  short  pieces  of  writing  which  deal 
with  the  exposition  of  ideas.  In  elementary  courses  in 
composition,  therefore,  this  relation  is  commonly  recom- 
mended to  the  student,  under  the  name,  usually,  of  the 
principle  of  unity. 

The  principle  of  unity,  as  frequently  misunderstood  by 
beginners,  is  supposed  to  have  the  following  significance: 


THE   LOGICAL  OUTLINE  55 

if  you  determine  the  subject  on  which  you  are  to  write, 
and  then  write  of  nothing  else,  you  may  rest  assured  of 
producing  an  efficient  sequence  of  thought.  Guided  by 
this  half-fight,  the  student  sets  forth,  and  presently 
stumbles  into  one  form  or  another  of  logical  nonsense. 
His  mistakes  are  so  characteristic  and  so  general  that  if 
in  writing  we  avoid  them  all  we  may  consider  that,  for 
beginners,  we  have  a  sufficient  mastery  of  the  outline  of 
thought. 

One  who  has  failed  to  think  out  his  subject  clearly, 
or  whose  mind  naturally  lacks  order,  often  turns  out  his 
work  by  a  process  of  addition.  As  ideas  are  suggested 
to  him  he  sets  them  down;  he  merely  shakes  them  out 
on  paper  in  any  order  in  which  they  come  uppermost. 
They  all  bear  more  or  less  on  the  subject,  but  they  lack 
organization.  Perhaps  there  is  among  them  a  leading 
thought  which  the  thinker  himself  has  not  recognized; 
then,  as  they  all  struggle  together  in  a  mob,  sooner  or 
later  the  dominant  idea  in  some  measure  subdues  the 
rest.  So  the  reader,  as  he  looks  on,  can  at  last  discern 
the  main  point.  Exercise  2  of  this  chapter  gives  an 
example  of  what  may  be  called  the  struggling  idea. 

Possibly,  however,  the  thinker  has  in  reality  no  purpose 
of  his  own  and  no  reason  for  writing.  His  thoughts  are, 
perhaps,  all  borrowed,  all  strange,  and  to  him  all  equally 
unattractive.  Then,  in  place  of  making  progress,  his  out- 
line is  discovered  to  go  round  and  round  upon  itself. 
This  structure  is  likely  to  be  illustrated  in  the  work  of  one 
who  sets  out  with  the  intention  of  covering  the  whole  of 
a  particular  subject,  merely  touching  on  the  main  points. 
In  such  a  case  the  ideas  are  not  connected  in  sequence, 
but  parallel.  Though  they  all  lead  back  to  the  subject, 
no  one  develops  another  or  depends  upon  it.  Conse- 
quently the  sentences  in  which  they  are  expressed,  once 


56  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

cut  apart  "w-ith  the  shears,  may  be  fitted  together  in  any 
other  order  whatsoever,  without  loss  of  effect.  When 
this  structure  of  thought  is  adopted  from  lack  of  time  or 
space  for  a  more  detailed  development,  it  is  legitimate. 
With  beginners,  however,  it  usually  points  to  the  absence 
of  definite  ideas  and  to  stupidity  in  the  choice  of  an  un- 
suitable subject.  The  wTiter  has  been  thinking  merely 
of  a  title.  He  has  got  so  far  as  to  see  that  somewhat 
might  be  said  on  this  point,  and  on  that  too  general  assur- 
ance has  set  forth.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  thing 
which  might  be  said  has  not  been  given  him,  and  his  work 
can  have  no  development,  because  it  has  had  no  aim. 
The  thought  does  not  present  itself  to  the  reader  as  a 
single  mental  process.  Exercise  1  of  this  chapter  shows 
an  example  of  the  interchangeable  order. 

Neither  of  the  orders  illustrated  above  is  likely  to  help 
on  materially  the  progress  of  thought.  The  mastery  of 
ideas  is  not  attained  till  they  have  been  seen  in  their 
lowest  terms.  Then  the  real  relations  are  evident  and  one 
or  at  most  a  few  stand  out  as  dominant.  Round  these 
the  others  are  grouped.  They  hold  together  naturally, 
as  a  man  may  carry  many  parcels,  provided  he  attaches 
them  all  to  one  string.  Details,  unattached,  are  next  to 
impossible  to  retain.  The  number  of  individual  ideas 
which  the  mind  can  entertain  at  one  time  is  strictly  limited. 
As  the  result  of  an  hour's  talk  or  a  half-hour's  reading, 
one  may  hope  to  acquire  and  retain  not  over  three  or  four 
distinct,  main  notions.  If  it  so  happen  that  these  are 
the  leading  ideas  of  the  discourse,  then  the  connecting 
thread  is  secure.  As  for  the  details,  so  long  as  they  are 
firmly  tied  to  these  central  thoughts,  the  more  the  merrier. 
Thus  disposed,  they  add  to  the  weight  of  the  idea,  without 
increasing  the  difficulty  of  handling  it. 

This   subordination  of   details   may   be   achieved   by 


THE   LOGICAL   OUTLINE  57 

deliberate  art;  or  it  may  often  be  attained  without  special 
effort  through  the  possession  of  a  purpose.  Here,  then, 
the  lesson  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding  chapter. 
He  who  knows  why  he  speaks  or  writes  is  assured  of  having 
reduced  his  ideas  to  the  lowest  terms,  for  he  sees  them  in 
the  light  of  a  single  aim.  The  test  question  in  beginning 
a  series  of  ideas  is  not,  ''What  shall  I  say?''  or  even, 
''What  do  I  think?"  but,  "What  do  I  wish  to  do?" 
Clear  definition  of  one's  object  at  the  outset  is  half  the 
battle.  A  writer  who  knows  what  he  wished  to  do  with 
thoughts  can  hardly  suffer  from  confusion;  his  purpose 
will  go  far  to  determine  the  selection,  the  arrangement, 
and  the  expression  of  every  idea.  Neither  can  such  a 
mind  be  poor  in  material.  Since  all  thought  is  related 
and  every  idea  bears  on  every  other,  the  power  to  develop 
a  subject  copiously  is  largely  the  power  to  see  its  connec- 
tions; and  the  mind  that  is  animated  with  a  purpose  suffi- 
ciently strong  sees  everything  in  the  light  of  its  central 
idea.  Thus  the  mastery  of  thought  depends,  fike  the 
mastery  of  other  things,  on  the  possession  of  a  purpose 
clearly  conceived  and  firmly  held.  The  unifying  force 
behind  the  thinking  is  the  force  of  will. 

EXERCISES 

1.  The  student  composition  which  follows  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  interchangeable  order.  Try  to  determine 
whether  any  rearrangement  of  the  ideas  would  make  the 
composition  appear  as  a  continuous  process  of  thought. 

A  pot  should  never  call  a  kettle  black.  It  is  the  custom  of 
many  people  who  have  a  great  many  faults  always  to  criticise 
others.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  most  grumbling  is  done 
by  the  people  who  are  most  at  fault.  Sometimes  people  criti- 
cise other  people  for  faults  which  they  themselves  are  addicted 


58  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

to.  Those  who  have  comparatively  few  faults  very  seldom 
are  found  giving  their  advice  to  others.  The  policy  of  fault- 
finding is  entirely  wTong.  People  in  glass  houses  should  never 
throw  stones. 

2.  In  the  following  student  composition  the  order  is 
that  of  the  struggling  idea.  Determine  for  yourself  what 
appears  to  be  the  leading  thought,  or  assume  it  to  be  as 
follows:  **A11  influences  will  combine  at  college  to  make 
me  take  my  work  more  seriously."  If  this  is  assumed  as 
a  central  theme,  the  ideas  may  then  be  rearranged  and 
the  expression  may  be  improved  so  as  to  make  every- 
thing bear  on  this  thought.  In  some  cases  the  student 
will  need  to  supply  material  from  his  imagination  so  as 
to  make  the  rewritten  form  more  full  and  definite.  The 
following  outline  is  suggested  for  use  in  the  revision.  The 
numbers  in  the  composition  were  inserted  merely  for 
convenience  of  use  in  connection  with  this  outline. 

Influences  Tending  to  Make  my  Work  More  Serious 

A  more  definite  aim  (1). 
Differences  in  the  social  life  (9,  6,  7,  8). 
An  increased  reahzation  of  the  value  of  the  instruction 
(5,  10). 

A  change  in  the  subjects  taught  (2). 
Differences  in  methods  of  instruction  (3,  11). 
A  difference  in  attitude  toward  my  work  (4,  12). 

High  School  and  College 

(1)  Probably  the  greatest  difference  between  my  life  at  col- 
lege and  my  life  at  the  preparatory  school  will  be  the  fact  that 
I  shall  now  have  a  different  aim  in  view.  While  I  was  at  high 
school,  my  aim  was  simply  to  prepare  to  meet  the  entrance 
examinations.  My  aim  now  is  to  learn  a  profession,  (2) 
The  subjects  of  study  at  college,  while  they  will  not  differ 


THE   LOGICAL  OUTLINE  59 

much  during  the  first  year  or  so  from  the  subjects  taught 
at  high  school,  will  probably  differ  very  much  in  the 
following  years.  (3)  The  subjects  will  probably  be  taught  in 
a  different  way,  (4)  and  I  shall  learn  them  more  thoroughly 
and  put  more  time  into  them.  (5)  Whereas  everything  was 
free  at  high  school,  I  have  to  pay  for  everything  at  college,  and 
I  shall  appreciate  my  subjects  of  study  more.  (6)  At  college 
my  dealings  will  be  with  men  more  advanced  in  age  than  at 
high  school.  (7)  While  at  high  school  a  fellow  has  more  time 
to  put  into  athletics  than  at  college.  In  high  school  the  hours 
are  from  nine  o'clock  until  two,  while  at  college  they  are  scat- 
tered through  the  day,  from  nine  o'clock  until  four  or  five; 
thus  giving  us  less  time  for  outdoor  life.  (8)  Everything  seems 
to  be  of  a  busier  aspect  at  college  than  at  high  school,  (9)  and, 
the  high  school  which  I  attended  being  in  my  own  neighbor- 
hood, I  felt  more  at  home.  (10)  I  shall  probably  have  to  work 
to  earn  part  of  the  cost  of  my  education  while  at  college,  as  I 
did  not  while  at  high  school.  (11)  Another  great  difference 
between  college  life  and  that  of  high  school  is  in  the  fact  that 
things  will  not  be  urged  upon  me  so  strongly.  If  I  do  not  learn 
my  assigned  lessons,  then  I  shall  consider  it  more  my  own  loss 
than  I  should  have  done  at  high  school,  (12)  and,  as  a  great 
deal  depends  upon  passing  the  mid-year  examinations,  it  will 
be  necessary  that  I  learn  each  assigned  lesson.  I  know  I  have 
to  pass  certain  examinations  to  get  my  degree,  while  less  depends 
upon  examinations  in  getting  a  diploma  from  high  school. 

What  relation  of  thought  is  mainly  employed  through- 
out the  preceding  composition?  If  a  single  relation  of 
thought  is  dominant  throughout,  why  is  there  no  con- 
tinuous line  of  thought? 

What  relation  of  thought  dominates  the  form  rewritten 
according  to  the  outline  suggested  above? 

3.  The  purpose  of  the  following  editorial,  so  far  as  it 
may  be  said  to  have  had  any  purpose,  was  to  avoid  giving 
offense.     Recast  it  with  h  view  (1)  of  excusing  the  action 


60  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS 

of  the  fire  department  and  (2)  of  throwing  blame  on  the 
department.  Then  compare  the  orders  of  ideas  in  the 
three  forms.  The  following  key  sentences  are  suggested 
as  a  help  in  the  revision. 

Though  the  legal  responsibil-  The  firemen  were  hasty,  for, 

ity  rests  with  the  corporation,  though  there  is  Httle   danger 

who  have  a  prompt  service  in  from  a  live  wire  and  they  are 

Buch   cases,   yet   the   firemen  trained   to   get    to   work    as 

are  trained  to  get  to  work  as  quickly  as  possible,  it  is  better 

early    as    possible.    Only    a  to  wait  for   the    corporation, 

short  time  ago  the  corpora-  on  whom    the    legal    respon- 

tion  service  was  notably  ineffi-  sibility  rests.    They  used  to  be 

cient;  and,  after  all,  the  danger  slow,  but  are  now  prompt  and 

from  prompt  action  is  small,  efficient, 
for  men  are  seldom  killed  by 
contact  with  a  live  trolley  wire. 

A  Sensational  Fire 

For  a  smr<ll  fire  the  blaze  on  Chaimcy  street  last  night  devel- 
oped some  quite  sensational  features.  The  force  first  on  the 
ground  cut  the  trolley  wire,  which  was  an  obstacle  to  the  ele- 
vation of  the  aerial  ladders,  and  high  jinks  followed.  The  chief 
of  the  department,  arriving  at  almost  that  instant,  received  a 
severe  but  probably  not  a  serious  shock  from  the  released  elec- 
trical diablerie.  Perhaps  the  prompt  action  on  the  part  of  the 
firemen  in  taking  such  a  summary  method  of  removing  an  ob- 
stacle was  unnecessary.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was  difficult 
to  get  timely  expert  assistance  in  such  an  emergency.  At  the 
Hecht  fire,  seven  years  ago,  it  was  as  much  as  three  hours 
before  the  employees  of  the  West  End  Road  were  able  to  shut 
off  the  current  from  the  system  in  that  vicinity,  and  in  the  mean- 
time a  writhing  mass  of  live  wires  was  spreading  demoraliza- 
tion on  all  sides  and  seriously  interfering  with  the  working  of 
some  of  the  more  important  apparatus. 

But  this  has  now  been  changed.    The  emergency  corps  of 


THE  LOGICAL   OUTLINE  61 

the  Boston  Elevated  Road  is  prompt,  and  knows  how  to  do  its 
work  without  danger  to  those  below.  At  about  every  five 
hundred  feet  there  are  switches  by  which  the  ciu-rent  can  be 
shut  off,  rendering  the  wires  harmless.  Too  much  blame 
should  not  be  attached  to  the  firemen  who  cut  the  wire.  Their 
predominating  impulse  is  to  get  to  work  as  soon  as  possible. 
But  it  would  be  more  prudent  to  await  the  action  of  the  cor- 
poration in  all  such  cases.  It  is  there  that  the  responsibihty 
belongs,  and  it  is  there  that  it  can  be  easily  placed  if  the  dan- 
ger is  not  promptly  removed.  There  is  httle  danger,  however, 
of  hmnan  fatahty  by  mere  contact  with  a  Hve  trolley  wire. 
There  is  no  well-authenticated  case  of  death  due  to  that  cause 
in  this  city. 

4.  The  following  student  composition  proves  on  analysis 
to  be: 

(a)  An  argument  from  the  definition  of  art  and  an 
analogy  or  argument  from  resemblance,  both  tending  to 
show  that  it  takes  time  to  leam  to  study  (first  paragraph). 

(6)  A  portion  of  an  exposition  of  how  to  leam  to  study 
(first  part  of  second  paragraph) . 

(c)  A  second  argument  from  resemblance,  tending  to 
show  that  study,  with  proper  training,  will  become  a 
pleasure. 

Which  idea  would  it  be  best  to  develop?  Is  there  any 
one  which  could  be  made  to  include  the  other  two,  so 
that  the  whole  of  the  present  substance  might  be  saved 
and  yet  treated  as  a  single  line  of  thought? 

How  TO  Study  Properly 

Studying  may  well  be  considered  as  an  art,  and  to  be  able 
to  study  properly  one  must  be  skilled  in  that  art.  This  neces- 
sarily takes  time,  and  —  what  is  fully  as  important  —  prac- 
tice. A  biUiard  player  does  not  become  proficient  in  a  week  or 
even  in  a  month.    It  takes  years  of  practice  for  him  to  become 


G2  THE  ORDER  OF  STATEMENTS  ' 

expert.  And  as  he  slowly  gains  experience  the  use  of  his  art 
becomes  a  second  nature  to  him.    This  is  also  true  of  studying. 

We  often  hear  the  statement  made  that  the  child  is  father 
to  the  man,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true.  But  a  child  does  not 
study.  Any  kind  of  restraint  is  irksome  to  him.  Therefore 
before  he  can  learn  to  study  he  must  learn  to  be  regular  in  his 
play.  This  done,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  teach  him  to  devote 
a  part  of  his  time  to  study,  and  as  he  grows  older  it  becomes  his 
second  nature.  He  is  now  in  the  same  stage  of  development 
as  the  billiard  player.  He  has  become  skilled  and  enjoys  his 
work.  He  is  also  aiming  at  some  goal,  and  everything  that 
tends  to  help  him  along  is  looked  upon  as  a  pleasure,  and  he 
has  at  last  learned  to  study  properly. 

This  goal  can  be  reached  only  by  long  practice  and  proper 
training.  The  football  player  docs  not  enjoy  the  first  few  prac- 
tice days,  but  when  he  has  learned  the  game  and  its  possibil- 
ities, he  is  always  eager  for  it.    The  same  is  true  of  studying. 

5.  What  is  the  thought  relation  which  governs  the  whole 
of  the  following  extract? 

College  life  is  artificially  simple.  With  the  single  excep- 
tion of  club  Hfe,  it  is  the  narrowest  life  a  man  can  Uve.  The 
great  reahties  that  condition  hfe  in  the  outside  world  —  the  care 
of  the  aged,  the  rearing  of  the  young,  the  struggle  for  daily  bread, 
the  strain  of  business,  the  stress  of  poUtics,  the  weight  of  pro- 
fessional and  administrative  responsibihty  —  are  either  entirely 
absent  or  present  only  in  artificial  miniature.  Welcome  checks 
for  the  wealthy,  generous  scholarships  for  those  whose  fortune 
is  chiefly  their  own  talent  and  industry,  ehminate  the  fierce 
struggle  for  existence  from  the  charmed  circle  of  undergradu- 
ate hfe.  The  absence  of  the  fair  sex  removes  at  least  to  a  dis- 
tance the  chief  source  of  emotional  interest  in  real  hfe.  Where 
men  touch  each  other  only  at  a  few  points,  such  as  social  inter- 
course, class,  college,  and  society  pohtics,  college  pubhcations, 
and  athletics,  the  man  who  can't  pass  muster  on  these  easy  terms  ' 
must  be  a  hopeless  case.    With  health,  wealth,  youth,  leisure, 


THE   LOGICAL   OUTLINE  63 

choice  companionship,  regular  and  inspiring  but  not  too  diffi- 
cult tasks,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  great  contests,  all  provided 
and  thrown  into  his  lap,  a  man  may  indeed  be  dull,  selfish, 
censorious,  conceited,  cowardly,  contemptible.  But  if  he  is, 
sharp  eyes  are  swift  to  detect  and  punish  him.  He  is  speedily 
dubbed  a  "dope"  or  a  "stiff"  or  a  "tripe"  or  a  "berry,"  or 
some  other  of  the  grotesque,  slangy  terms,  more  forcible  than 
elegant,  by  which  college  students  brand  the  fellows  who  are 
sleepy  and  tactless,  irritable  and  complaining,  self-centred 
and  treacherous.  1 

'  Hyde,  "  The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Reprinted 
by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


PART    II 

THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

In  Part  II  we  turn  from  the  order  in  which  thoughts 
are  expressed  to  a  study  of  what  may  be  called  the  effi- 
ciency of  mental  processes.  There  are  in  the  very  nature 
of  thinking  certain  limitations  which  prevent  it  from 
doing  full  justice  to  the  world  about  which  we  think. 
Ideas,  that  is  to  say,  are  most  serviceable  when  they  are 
exactly  defined,  sharply  distinguished  from  other  ideas, 
and  constant  to  one  form.  Existing  things,  on  the  other 
hand,  show  precisely  the  opposite  of  all  these  require- 
ments. They  are  not  capable  of  full  description  in  words, 
they  run  into  one  another  indistinguishably,  and  they 
are  always  changing.  Thus  a  person  who  sets  out  to 
think  cannot  be  too  frequently  reminded  of  the  neces- 
sarily rough  and  approximate  nature  of  the  work  he  is 
likely  to  do.  Again,  these  differences  between  ideas  and 
things  are  constantly  leading  the  untrained  thinker  into 
difficulties  that  he  might  avoid.  Sometimes  he  uses  a 
wide  and  general  thought  when  he  could  be  better  served 
with  one  more  definite.  He  employs  ideas  based  on  his 
own  tastes  and  preferences  and  does  not  understand  that 
others  have  a  perfect  right  to  define  them  differently. 
He  takes  notions  derived  from  comparison  of  a  large  class 
of  objects  and  uses  them  as  though  they  referred  only 
to  the  cases  he  has  observed.  In  all  these  connections 
and  many  others  the  average  thinker  shows  little  sense 
of  the  true  relation  between  words  and  things. 


THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS  65 

Chapter  I  explains  the  fluid  and  indefinite  nature  of 
the  material  furnished  us  for  thought  and  shows  how,  to 
suit  our  own  convenience,  we  form  it  into  units.  Chapter 
II  deals  with  the  comparison  of  these  units  with  ideas, 
a  process  which  results  in  what  is  called  ''facts."  In 
Chapter  III  facts  are  classified,  according  as  they  depend 
upon  abstract  ideas,  personal  preferences,  or  notions  which 
cover  a  class  of  objects.  The  next  two  chapters  explain 
in  detail  what  is  implied  in  the  truth  that  ideas  are  mental 
symbols;  and  they  sum  up  the  cautions  to  be  given  in  the 
use  of  such  symbols.  Finally,  in  Chapter  VI,  there  is 
an  account  of  the  method  of  logical  division,  by  which, 
through  the  use  of  many  related  ideas,  the  mind  attempts 
to  deal  comprehensively  with  all  the  important  aspects  of 
a  complex  subject. 

The  exercises  in  Part  II  are  almost  all  of  a  practical 
nature.  Taken  together  they  constitute  an  attack  on 
the  common  habit  of  using  words  without  stopping  to 
consider  what  they  mean.  The  student  is  asked,  first  of 
all,  to  write  of  what  he  knows  and  to  compare  his  state- 
ments directly  with  the  subjects  of  his  thought.  He  is 
directed  to  distinguish,  among  all  the  ideas  he  uses,  those 
which  are  supposed  to  relate  to  groups  of  facts.  He  has 
some  practice  in  the  clear  statement  of  abstract  ideas 
and  in  the  attempt  to  apply  these,  in  turn,  to  the  observa- 
tion of  particular  things.  It  should  follow,  if  the  work  has 
been  reasonably  successful,  that  all  his  life  he  will  be  less 
likely  to  get  carried  away  with  a  mere  flow  of  language 
and  more  disposed  to  confine  his  own  talking  and  writing 
to  occasions  when  he  has  some  knowledge  of  the  facts. 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  SUBJECTS  OF  THOUGHT 

Certain  grave  difficulties  confront  us  in  attempting 
to  think  about  facts.  The  most  obvious  of  these  is  the 
amazing  complexity  of  even  the  most  familiar  objects. 
They  have  an  infinite  number  of  possible  relations  and 
qualities.  Here,  for  instance,  is  a  nail,  half  starting 
from  the  floor.  It  causes  me  to  trip,  and  I  express 
my  judgment  about  it  in  a  thought,  —  "This  nail  is  a 
nuisance."  Such,  for  the  moment,  is  the  only  aspect  in 
which  this  individual  thing  presents  itself  to  me.  In 
other  relations,  however,  and  at  other  times  it  may  pre- 
sent itself  in  a  number  of  other  aspects.  The  physicist, 
perhaps,  will  tell  me  that  it  has  a  relation  with  the  stresses 
and  strains  of  the  building.  The  student  of  metallurgy 
will  examine  its  molecular  structure  and  tell  me  something 
of  the  temperature  at  which  it  was  cast.  The  machinist 
knows  the  processes  of  its  manufacture.  Of  the  thing 
as  it  exists  for  itself,  meanwhile,  almost  nobody  knows 
anything.  We  observe  that  it  has  certain  strange  habits 
and  unaccountable  likes  and  dislikes:  it  is  coherent,  it 
rusts,  it  obeys  the  laws  of  gravity.  Such  is  an  inadequate 
attempt  to  hint  at  a  few  of  the  relations  and  aspects  of 
one  subject  of  thought.  It  is  perhaps  as  simple  a  subject 
as  could  be  chosen. 

What  holds  true  of  simple  individual  objects  is  perhaps 
more  evident,  though  certainly  not  more  striking,  in  a 
wider  view  of  the  matters  about  which  we  think.     Even 

66 


THE   SUBJECTS  OF  THOUGHT  67 

leaving  out  of  count  the  suggestions  of  the  other  senses 
and  of  what  we  call  the  feelings,  a  sharp  attention  is 
required  in  dealing  with  the  picture  presented  by  the 
eye  alone.  The  student  enters  the  chemical  laboratory 
primarily  to  see.  Here  every  precaution  is  taken  that 
may  simplify  his  task.  He  is  told  precisely  what  will 
happen  and  what  aspects  of  the  event  it  is  worth  his  while 
to  note;  yet,  what  with  the  excitement  of  the  moment  and 
the  various  accidental  matters  that  arise,  he  too  often 
finds  himself,  after  the  reaction,  without  a  single  experience 
that  he  could  swear  to.  Years  of  practice  are  necessary 
before  an  observer  can  be  sure  of  himself,  even  in  the  very 
limited  field  of  action  of  a  test  tube.  The  same  straining 
eagerness  and  sense  of  final  loss  are  felt  in  watching  the 
last  tableau  of  a  drama.  Here  the  stage  manager,  if  he 
understands  his  work,  has  arranged  a  significant  group; 
the  position  of  every  actor,  the  expression  of  every  face 
contributes  largely  to  the  general  effect,  and  the  whole 
is  to  pass,  on  the  fall  of  the  curtain,  with  something  of 
the  fleetness  of  real  events.  In  face  of  such  a  situation 
the  interested  spectator  sits  embarrassed.  Some  selection 
must  obviously  be  made;  the  whole  is  beyond  the  com- 
pass of  a  brain.  So  it  is,  not  only  with  the  facts  of  vision, 
but  with  all  other  experiences  and  with  the  inner  com- 
plexity of  ideas;  we  cannot  express  them,  we  cannot  hope 
to  know  them  entire.  In  that  direction  the  progress  of 
logic  is  hopelessly  blocked. 

In  dealing  mentally  with  this  complex  world  of  real 
conditions  our  aim,  comprehensively  stated,  is  to  simplify. 
This  we  accomplish  by  viewing  all  that  lies  about  us  as 
an  association  of  units,  or  individuals,  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent and  producing  effects  upon  one  another.  When 
the  differences  by  which  we  distinguish  these  units  relate 
to  position,  the  mind  is  led  to  think  in  terms  of  numbers 


68  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

and  to  engage  in  other  forms  of  purely  mathematical 
reasoning.  When  the  differences  relate  to  qualities,  the 
resulting  notion  is  that  of  individuality.  The  method  of 
thinking  in  numbered  units  is  already  sufficiently  familiar. 
Individual  units,  too,  we  find  everywhere.  Such,  for 
instance,  are  the  common  objects  which  are  presented  to 
us  through  the  sense  of  sight,  —  an  animal,  a  plant  from 
roots  to  leaves,  a  mountain,  a  field  surrounded  with  a 
hedge,  the  human  body.  Where  the  eyes  give  no  hint  of 
how  much  shall  be  included  in  the  unit,  the  mind  attacks 
the  problem  alone  and  produces  abstract  individuals, 
sometimes  by  analysis,  sometimes  by  grouping.  A  child 
who  trusts  you  will  accept  a  remark  of  yours  as  a  simple 
fact,  like  the  presence  of  a  tree  in  the  garden;  but 
the  sophisticated  grown  person  who  overhears  the  same 
remark  may  analyze  the  fact.  He  distinguishes  the  words 
from  the  meaning;  he  thinks  of  the  connection  in  which 
they  were  spoken,  and  of  their  purpose.  Thus  out  of  one 
unit  his  mind  has  created  four.  These  four  may  be  em- 
ployed separately  in  his  thinking,  as  individual  subjects 
of  thought.  They  are  "  abstract "  individuals,  taken  away 
or  "abstracted"  by  analysis  from  the  whole  to  which 
they  belonged.  Again  the  observer  looks  upon  a  flock  of 
sheep.  He  thinks  of  them  first  in  the  relation  of  difference 
of  position,  —  one  here,  one  there,  a  number.  Then  he 
notes  the  relation  of  resemblance.  One  is  clearly  like 
another.  Since  they  are  in  some  respects  alike,  they  may 
conveniently  be  considered  together  as  one,  a  flock.  Thus 
the  mind  by  grouping  forms  another  abstract  individual, 
which  in  this  case  also  is  not  so  much  an  existing  fact  as 
a  mental  fiction,  an  idea. 

These  units  of  which  we  think,  however  they  may  be 
formed,  must  fall  under  the  general  definition  of  unity 
laid  down  in  elementary  mathematics,  —  they  are  mere 


THE   SUBJECTS   OF  THOUGHT  69 

arbitrary  divisions,  all  capable  of  being  again  divided  at 
the  pleasure  of  thought  into  smaller  divisions,  or  combined 
into  larger.  This  fact  is  evident  enough  with  the  flock 
of  sheep;  it  is  fairly  plain  in  the  case  of  inanimate  objects, 
for  we  daily  see  that  they  are  broken  up  and  that  their 
parts  are  recombined  at  the  will  of  man:  but  with  a 
moment's  thought  it  is  easy  to  see  that  all  units  have  the 
same  quality.  Off-hand,  for  instance,  there  is  nothing 
which  seems  more  certainly  and  indisputably  a  unit  than 
the  self.  A  man's  ''I"  is  one  thing,  and  there's  an  end 
of  it.  On  reflection,  however,  it  is  found  to  be  formed  of 
at  least  two  quite  distinct  units,  his  thoughts,  his  mental 
self,  and  his  feelings,  his  physical  self.  Or,  to  be  still 
more  exact,  these  two  units  are  merely  possessions  of  the 
"I";  any  part  of  them  may  be  got  rid  of  and  yet  the 
''I"  will  be  left  intact.  So,  finally,  the  personality  in  its 
simplest  sense  comes  to  seem  like  a  mere  peg  on  which  to 
hang  thoughts  and  feelings,  a  kind  of  geometric  point  of 
the  mind.  How  much  we  hang  on  the  peg  will  be  a  matter 
of  momentary  convenience.  Thought  may  deal  with 
the  *'I"  as  a  bare  zero,  or  it  may  add  to  this  abstraction 
whatever  connected  things  it  chooses  from  the  whole 
inner  and  outer  world. 

Again,  suppose  we  speak  of  the  Republican  party. 
Careless  thinkers  deal  with  this  idea  as  an  indivisible 
unit.  They  move  it  round  in  their  brains  as  though  all 
its  parts  were  as  solidly  knit  as  an  ivory  chessman.  A 
thoughtful  person,  however,  has  no  sooner  used  the  term 
in  making  a  statement  than  he  begins  to  feel  that  perhaps 
it  needs  closer  analysis.  The  party  platform  and  litera- 
ture are  one  thing,  the  ''practical  politics"  quite  another. 
Historically,  too,  the  idea  falls  apart:  Republicanism 
under  Blaine  was  not  the  same  as  Republicanism  under 
Roosevelt.     Thus  the  lesson  becomes  immediately  evident : 


k 


70  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

this  unit  is  held  together,  like  any  other  unit,  only  by  the 
power  of  thought.  It  is  an  arrangement  which  the  mind 
makes,  quite  arbitrarily,  to  help  it  in  disposing,  more 
quickly  or  more  effectively,  of  a  group  of  facts. 

So  much,  then,  for  the  first  step  in  the  problem  of 
simplifying  mental  material.  The  mind  looks  out  upon 
the  very  complex  spectacle  of  reality  and  asks,  "Where 
is  the  particular  portion  of  all  this  with  which  we  are  now 
to  deal?  How  much  of  all  that  lies  before  us  shall  we 
consider  at  one  time?  "  and  the  answer  is  found  in  the  more 
or  less  arbitrary  choice  of  an  individual  unit.  The  unit 
becomes  the  subject  of  thought. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Attempt  a  narrative  which  shall  cover  as  much  as 
possible  of  what  happens  in  a  brief  period,  say  three  min- 
utes, of  your  life.  Choose  some  recent  period  which  you 
happen  to  remember,  rather  than  one  specially  prepared. 
First  describe  in  the  order  of  events,  then  according  to 
some  classification,  as  thoughts,  feelings,  things  seen,  etc. 
Consider  in  each  case  how  much  escapes  description,  and 
why. 

2.  Consider  some  simple  object,  as  a  chalk  box.  Adopt 
a  convenient  point  of  view  and  give  a  full  oral  description 
of  it  as  it  thus  appears.  From  closer  study  explain  the 
degree  of  inaccuracy  involved  in  what  you  have  said  of 
its  color  and  its  shape. 

3.  Is  the  story  in  Exercise  1,  Part  I,  Chapter  II,  a 
comprehensive  account  of  the  writer's  experiences  during 
the  time  it  covers?  Consider  in  what  parts  and  how 
fully  he  represents'  the  thoughts  and  feelings  communi- 
cated to  him  by  (a)  the  weather,  (6)  his  clothing,  (c)  the 
scenery,  {d)  the  footing,  (e)  the  weight  and  position  of  the 
gun,  and  (/)  ideas  brought  to  his  mind  through  association. 


CHAPTER  ir 

OBSERVATION    AND    RESULTING    STATEMENTS 
ABOUT  FACTS 

When  the  mind  has  selected  or  formed  the  unit  about 
which  it  is  to  think,  it  proceeds  next  to  the  discovery  of 
what  are  called  the  "facts"  about  the  unit.  For  this 
process  common  speech  already  furnishes  a  familiar  term, 
—  the  word  "observation."  The  observer  is  one  who 
examines  carefully  and  with  a  purpose.  There  is  in  his 
mind  a  clearly  defined  notion  of  something  which  he  seeks; 
and  his  task  is,  by  whatever  experiments  may  be  necessary, 
to  inquire  whether  this  something  is  present  in  the  subject 
he  is  observing. 

In  attempting  to  illustrate  the  essential  nature  of  this 
process  we  may  analyze  two  or  three  common  instances 
of  observation.  The  simplest  cases,  and  the  most  funda- 
mental, are  drawn  from  the  physical  world.  There  are 
plenty  of  facts  of  a  purely  mental  sort.  It  is  a  fact,  for 
instance,  that  two  and  two  make  four,  or  that  in  the 
presence  of  certain  people  we  feel  a  sense  of  irritation. 
At  the  same  time  the  material  for  thinking  processes  is 
originally  furnished,  we  must  assume,  through  the  senses. 
They  give  us  evidence  of  conditions  in  the  outside  world, 
what  we  call  the  "real."  So  we  may  begin  the  study  of 
observation  with  a  case  in  which  the  senses  plainly  bear 
a  part. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  Farmer  Brown,  driving  in  the 
dusk  along  a  country  turnpike,  finds  that  his  horse  shies 
at  some  object  beside  the  road.     Being  of  an  inquisitive 


72  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

nature,  he  gets  out  of  his  wagon  to  determine  what  this 
object  may  be.  The  problem  which  he  sets  himself 
involves,  of  course,  merely  one  of  the  simple  thinking 
processes  of  daily  life,  and  at  first  appears  to  have  no 
bearing  on  science  or  logic.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not 
essentially  different  from  the  work  of  the  analytical  chemist 
or  of  the  engineer  who  tests  materials,  for  the  purpose 
which  animates  all  these  activities  is,  when  simply  stated, 
only  the  desire  to  get  nearer  to  facts  in  order  to  determine 
what  they  resemble.  Closer  inspection,  however,  shows 
that  it  is  possible  to  divide  Farmer  Brown's  observation 
into  two  steps. 

(a)  At  some  ix)int  in  his  preliminary  survey  of  the 
subject  he  catches  a  hint  which  suggests  to  his  mind  an 
idea.  He  exclaims  to  himself,  "It  is  a  white  stone,'*  or, 
**It  is  a  piece  of  paper."  Being  a  farmer,  Mr.  Brown, 
if  he  reflects  upon  this  idea  at  all,  will  call  it  a  ''guess." 
If  he  were  a  scientist  he  would  in  a  parallel  case  c^ll  it 
an  hjT^othesis.  The  main  point  is  that,  whatever  its 
name,  it  furnishes  something  to  go  upon,  some  hint  as 
to  where  to  look.  This  is  the  first  stage  in  observation  — 
the  selection  of  the  idea. 

(6)  After  the  preliminary  guess,  if  accurate  information 
is  required,  Farmer  Brown  moves  nearer  to  the  subject, 
turns  it  over,  passes  it  between  his  fingers,  and  applies 
what  not  other  experimental  tests.  His  purpose  is  to 
examine  the  thing  in  the  light  of  what  he  knows  of  white 
stones,  or  pieces  of  paper,  or  whatever  other  notion  he 
may  have  formed,  and  to  determine  whether  the  qualities 
which  he  has  in  mind  are  in  any  degree  represented  in 
this  object  outside  his  mind.  This  is  the  second  step  in 
observation,  the  comparison  of  whatever  is  being  observed 
with  the  ideas  imder  which  one  is  observing  it. 

Suppose  again  that  the  problem  of  observation  were 


OBSERVATION   AND   STATEMENTS  73 

to  estimate  the  value  of  a  piece  of  property  for  residence. 
Here  likewise  it  is  first  necessary  to  know  what  needs  to  be 
observed.  The  house-hunter,  for  instance,  before  he  can 
go  about  his  search  intelligently,  must  have  formed  in  his 
mind  more  or  less  distinctly  either  a  notion  of  what  he 
wants  or  a  conception  of  the  qualities  which  in  general  affect 
the  value  of  a  residence.  This  does  for  him  the  same  sort 
of  work  as  the  guess  or  hypothesis  does  for  Farmer  Brown, 
—  i.e.  it  serves  as  a  standard  for  testing  facts,  or  it  tells 
him  in  what  direction  to  look  for  detailed  information. 

Finally,  suppose  that  we  are  attempting  to  observe 
the  straight  line  from  a  to  h.  In  this  case  again  the  first 
question  that  arises  concerns  the  choice  of  ideas  to  be 
employed.  How  is  the  line  to  be  measured?  Is  it  to  be 
considered  as  a  line  in  a  mechanical  drawing?  Then  it 
will  be  essential  to  note  the  general  character  of  the  line, 
whether  solid  or  broken,  the  width,  and  the  exact  points 
of  application  at  a  and  6.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  act- 
ual line  ah  is  to  be  understood  as  a  mere  graphical  repre- 
sentation of  the  shortest  distance  between  a  and  6,  then 
it  remains  only  to  inquire  whether  the  observation  re- 
quired relates  to  direction  or  to  length,  and  finally,  after 
the  adoption  of  a  suitable  standard  of  measurement,  as 
the  degree,  the  inch,  or  the  foot,  to  compare  the  fact  to 
be  observed  with  this  standard. 

Such  are  three  examples  of  observation,  taken  almost 
at  random,  two  of  them  from  daily  life  and  one  from  ele- 
mentary science.  Though  simple  cases,  they  fairly  repre- 
sent the  general  character  of  such  processes  of  thought 
and  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  whole.  The  main 
lesson  to  be  drawn  from  them  is  that  observation  is 
essentially  the  comparison  of  things  with  ideas.  It  is 
the  study  of  subjects  of  thought,  with  the  aid  of  the  senses 
and  under  points  of  view  suggested  by  certain  ideas, 


74  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

which  thus  in  a  broad  sense  serve  as  standards  of  compari- 
son. The  real  situation  is  compared  with  a  set  of  qualities, 
more  or  less  clearly  held  in  mind,  in  order  to  determine 
how  it  measures  against  them.  The  result  of  this  compari- 
son, stated  in  words,  is  what  we  usually  mean  when  we 
employ  the  term  "fact." 

The  material  for  thinking  processes  is,  then,  not  the 
outside  world  itself,  but  the  result  of  countless  comparisons 
of  the  world  with  ideas.  What  these  comparisons  tell  us 
will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  ideas  which  dominated 
our  observation.  The  world  of  reality  appears  before  us 
like  a  witness  cross-examined  by  a  badgering  lawyer.  It 
must  give  truthful  replies  to  all  the  questions  that  we 
ask,  but  aside  from  that  is  forced  to  be  dumb.  No  matter 
how  rich  in  interest  the  situation  may  be,  we  shall  gather 
knowledge  of  it  only  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the 
ideas  within  our  minds.  The  competent  observer,  then, 
requires  first  of  all  a  mind  neither  dull  nor  one-sided,  but 
awake  to  all  phases  of  existence.  For  the  higher  sorts  of 
observation,  for  invention  and  discovery,  this  alertness 
means  breadth  of  interest.  One  whose  interests  are 
narrow  cares  only  for  his  profession;  he  concerns  himself 
only  with  what  is  already  known  to  be  useful  to  men  of 
his  trade.  Outside  this  range  lies  the  world  of  what  now 
appear  unimportant  ideas,  and  somewhere  in  that  world, 
waiting  to  be  observed,  is  the  next  important  discovery. 
It  can  reveal  itself  only  to  one  who  watches  events  with  a 
universal  curiosity  to  which  every  detail  is  of  importance. 

To  this  interest  in  new  things  the  trained  observer 
needs  to  add  the  widest  possible  knowledge  of  what  is 
already  known.  Practice  and  study,  professional  experi- 
ence store  his  mind  with  points  of  view  for  observation. 
He  knows  how  to  take  hold  of  new  problems,  what  particu- 
lars must  be  observed,  and  what  may  be  neglected.     From 


OBSERVATION  AND   STATEMENTS  75 

this  knowledge  of  similar  things  he  anticipates  events  and 
is  ready  for  them.  If  a  boy  of  average  high-school  age  is 
asked  to  give  an  account  of  the  town  in  which  he  lives, 
he  may  mention  some  details  of  the  social  life  among  the 
younger  people,  the  nearness  to  ponds  and  trout  streams, 
the  number  of  schools,  and  the  like;  but  hardly  of  the 
cost  of  provisions  or  the  working  of  political  parties. 
One  set  of  facts  may  be  as  accessible  to  him  as  the  other, 
but,  though  the  one  is  easily  picked  up,  the  other  remains 
totally  hidden.  While  the  necessities  of  life  seem  to  grow 
on  trees,  a  boy  will  never  dream  that  in  learning  about 
a  town  it  is  essential  to  hear  of  the  nearness  of  markets 
and  the  price  of  foods.  These  facts  cannot  fit  themselves 
into  his  system  of  knowledge  because  they  do  not  feel 
themselves  welcome  and  at  home  among  their  kind.  In 
the  same  way  a  layman  sent  out  to  observe  an  engine 
stands  before  a  meaningless  confusion  of  small  parts. 
The  practical  engineer  knows  the  name  and  function  of 
each.  Though  as  individual  pieces  of  mechanism  they  are 
new  to  him,  he  has  stored  in  mind  a  clear  ideal  of  what 
they  should  be.  For  him  the  work  of  observation  is  merely 
the  general  task  of  all  acquirement  of  facts,  —  the  meas- 
urement of  new  things  against  standards  derived  from 
things  familiar. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Study  your  ability  to  observe  and  to  record  your 
observations  in  connection  with  the  following  range  of 
subjects.  Note  particularly  what  are  the  reasons  for  the 
limits  of  your  power  in  each  case. 

The  facade  of  a  large  building;  a  gown  in  a  show  window; 
a  city  street;  a  simple  mechanical  construction,  like  the  central 
chandelier  of  a  church;  general  atmospheric  tints  and  their  effect 
on  the  colors  of  natural  objects  or  buildings  towards  evening. 


76 


THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 


2.  Examine  more  carefully  the  fagade  of  some  large 
building.  Attempt  a  rough  free-hand  sketch  of  the  main 
lines,  especially  such  as  serve  to  indicate  structural 
divisions.  Make  notes  of  the  details,  and  then  write  a 
description  of  the  whole. 

3.  Examine  a  photograph  of  a  painting  or  piece  of 
sculpture,  making  careful  notes.  A  suitable  subject  is  a 
photograph  of  the  so-called  bust  of  Niccolo  da  Uzzano 
ascribed  to  Donatello.  In  this  case,  and  in  most 
others,  the  notes  may  be  taken  under  the  following 
headings : 


Subject 

How  represented 

Profile 

Point  of  view 

Proportions  of 

Personality 

profile 

Body 

Flesh 

Forehead 

Shape 

Muscular  develop- 

Width 

ment 

Height 

Apparent  size 

Eyebrows 

Arch 

GARME>rr 

Style 

Height 

Arrangement 

Thickness 

Neck 

Size 

Size 

Length 

Eyes 

Distance  apart 

Muscular  develop- 

Setting in  head 

ment 

Upper  lid 

Skull 

Depth 

Eye  itself 

Breadth 

Nose 

Length 

Height  above  ears 

Thickness 

Height  above  eye- 

Profile 

brows 

Mouth 

Upper  Hp 

Capacity 

Lower  lip 

Face 

General  shape 

Curves 

Markings  on  skin 

General  line  of 

Shape  of  jaw 

opening 

Cheek  bones 

CmN 

Shape 

Flesh 

Protrusion 

OBSERVATION   AND   STATEMENTS  77 

Work  over  the  information  thus  obtained  into  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  appearance  of  the  person  represented,  omitting 
all  inferences  as  to  his  character. 

4.  Attempt  a  full  report  (ten  or  twelve  letter  sheets) 
on  a  town,  neighborhood,  summer  resort,  or  street  as  a 
place  of  residence.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  that  each 
student  should  take  the  place  which  is  most  familiar  to 
him.  Below  is  given  an  incomplete  list  of  points  of  view 
intended  to  be  useful  in  thinking  out  the  subject.  It 
will  be  evident  that  not  all  of  them  apply  to  any  particular 
case  and  that  the  order  in  which  they  are  given  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  order  in  which  the  report  is  to  be  written. 
The  student  should  go  over  the  Ust  carefully,  comparing 
the  headings  with  what  he  knows  of  the  place  he  intends 
to  describe,  and  making  notes  of  the  facts  desirable  to  use. 
He  should  then  rearrange  his  notes  in  the  best  order  that 
occurs  to  him  and  write  from  them,  without  further  reference 
to  the  list  of  points  of  view.  The  report  should  be  written 
in  continuous  prose  style,  with  the  usual  attention  to 
matters  of  form. 

(A)  Surroundings 

I.  Natural. 

(1)  Land:  General  topography;  elevation;  exposure;  view; 
nearness  to  bodies  of  water  or  wooded  areas;  character  of  these; 
walks  and  drives.  (2)  Products:  Hunting  and  fishing;  soil; 
vegetation;  fitness  for  grazing,  '■  tc;  natural  water  supply.  (3) 
Atmospheric  conditions:  Climate;  rainfall;  fog;  humidity; 
healthfulness. 

II.  Artificial. 

(1)  Nearness  to  centres:  Large  cities  or  important  towns; 
markets;  nature  of  these,  prices,  etc.;  schools;  postoffice; 
churches.  (2)  Means  of  transportation:  Condition  of  roads; 
railroad  or  street  railway  lines;  walking  distance  of  such  lines 
from  house;  patronage;  scheduled  time  to  important  points; 


78  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

regularity;  service.  (3)  Public  improvements:  Parks,  play- 
grounds; libraries;  drainage,  water,  gas,  or  electric  lighting  sys- 
tems. (4)  General  social  and  political  character  of  the  whole 
surrounding  district. 

(B)  The  Place  Itself 

I.  Physical  Characteristics. 

(1)  Houses:  Materials;  repair;  character  of,  as  single,  apart- 
ment, tenement,  etc.;  inmiediate  surroundings,  as  yards,  gar- 
dens; condition  and  size  of  these.  (2)  Streets:  Arrangement; 
surface;  shade  trees;  overhead  wires;  tracks;  cleanliness;  driv- 
ing; heavy  teaming;  foot  travel. 

II.  Social  Characteristics. 

.(1)  Social:  Nationality;  size  of  families;  "  social "  sets  and 
organizations;  number  of  young  people;  of  children;  sports  and 
recreations;  street  life;  treatment  of  strangers.  (2)  Economic: 
Occupations;  business  or  manufacturing  interests  near  by;  earn- 
ings; wealth;  scale  of  expenditure.  (3)  Political:  Party  in 
control  locally;  character  of  men  in  office;  effect  of  their  man- 
agement on  the  life  of  the  immediate  neighborhood.  (4)  Relig- 
ious: Church  buildings;  denominations;  membership;  activity; 
moral  standard  of  the  community.  (5)  Intellectual:  Schools 
and  schooling;  interest  in  music,  art,  literature;  clubs  and  plans 
for  social  improvement;  intelligence  of  the  people. 

5.  The  following  is  an  instructive  list  of  headings  drawn 
from  a  consulting  engineer's  report  on  the  value  of  an 
electric  light  plant.  Note  the  detail  and  its  bearing  on 
the  value  of  the  business. 

Incorporation :  Franchises : 

State  Use  of  streets 

Date  of  organization  Special  regulations 

Bonds  and  redemption  Time  limit 

Sinking  fund  City  contract : 

Stock  Time  of  renewal 


OBSERVATION   AND   STATEMENTS 


79 


Number  of  lamps  and  price 

Provisions  for  extension 

Requirement  as  to    under- 
ground wires 

Price  versus  cost 

Right  of  arbitration 

Possibility  of  municipal 
plant 
Street  railway  contracts: 

Companies  involved 

Amount  and  kind  of  current 

Cost 

Price  versus  cost 
Land  and  location  : 

Position  and  extent 

Water  supply 
Buildings : 

Materials 

Construction 

Arrangement 

Condition 

Chimney 
Boilers : 

Number 

Make 

Dimensions 

Pressure 

Horse-power 

Feed  pumps 
Rates  : 

Cost 

Discount 

Restrictions 
Valuation  (itemized) 
Piping : 

Condition 

Amount 


Valves 

Heaters 

Pumps 

Condensers 
Engines : 

Style 

Size 

Number 
Belting  and  shafting: 

How  connected 

Thickness  of  belts 

Nature  of  shafting 

Pulleys 

Clutches 
Foundations 
Dynamos 
Switch  boards 
Lines : 

Wood  in  poles 

Painting 

Repair 

Total  length  of  circuits 

Subdivisions  of  circuits: 
Arc  circuits 
Incandescent  circuits 
Power  circuits 
Metres 
Transformers 
Lamps : 

Direct  arc 

Alternating  arc 

Incandescent 

Street  fixtures 
Stock  on  hand 
Tramway  for  coal  hauling : 

Distance 

Handling  at  boilers 


80  THE  MEANING   OF   STATEMENTS 

Tramway  for  coal  havling :  Changes  in  equipment 

Rolling  stock  Economy  of  operation 

Track  Condition  of  accounts 

Suspension  Future  of  the  city 

Cost  of  coal  Chance  of  competition 

General  opinion :  Real  valuation  versus  bonds 

Opportunity  for  extension  Earnings 

Loss  in  Unes  Probable  profit  for  the  year 
Opening  for  new  business 

6.  Students  who  have  the  requisite  knowledge  should 
attempt  a  similar,  but  of  course  briefer  and  more  informal, 
report  on  any  small  business  with  which  they  are  ac- 
quainted. It  is  understood  that  the  amount  of  knowledge 
is  likely  to  be  small,  unless  it  can  be  supplemented  through 
talks  with  older  people.  The  value  of  such  exercises, 
however,  lies  not  in  their  length,  but  in  the  serious  work 
required  to  write  even  a  little,  and  in  the  increased  knowl- 
edge of  one's  own  mental  range.  The  subject  must  be 
always  some  actual  business,  treated  with  fidelity  to  fact, 
though  not  necessarily  with  mention  of  the  names  and 
places.  Suitable  subjects  are  such  as  the  following:  A 
newspaper  route;  a  retail  grocery  business;  a  small 
manufacturing  establishment  or  machine  shop;  a  summer 
hotel;  a  country  newspaper;  a  garage;  the  equipment 
and  finances  of  a  small  private  school  or  academy. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  IDEAS  EMPLOYED  IN  OBSERVATION 

Since  statements  of  fact  are  obtained  through  an  ex- 
amination of  things  in  the  Ught  of  ideas,  the  degree  of 
accuracy  reached  will  depend  in  part  upon  the  observer's 
sense  powers  and  the  use  which  he  makes  of  them.  If 
one  man  asserts  that  the  shield  was  of  silver  and  another 
is  equally  certain  that  it  was  of  gold,  the  difference  of 
opinion  may  be  due  to  color  blindness,  to  lack  of  attention, 
or  to  point  of  view.  Thus,  much  depends  upon  the  senses; 
but  at  the  same  time  much  depends  also  upon  the  mind. 
The  credulous  observer  may  often  believe  that  he  has  had 
an  experience,  as  he  would  contract  an  infectious  disease, 
merely  because  he  firmly  expected  to  have  it.  Such  a 
person,  sent  out  to  view  the  fagade  of  a  church,  reports 
that  the  cross  is  gilded,  when  in  reality  it  is  of  stone. 
"Churches  usually  have  gilt  crosses,"  says  he  to  himself, 
and  troubles  no  further  to  look.  This  difficulty  is  the 
more  likely  to  beset  him  in  proportion  as  the  thing  he 
expects  to  see  is  either  greatly  dreaded  or  greatly  desired, 
for  then  the  idea  looms  so  large  in  the  mind  that  it  goes 
far  to  shut  out  the  comparison  entirely. 

Again,  even  when  the  comparison  actually  gets  made, 
its  value  depends  pretty  largely  on  the  exactness  and 
clearness  of  the  idea.  He  who  asserts,  for  instance,  that 
a  flower-bed  is  circular  makes  a  statement  easily  verifiable, 
for  the  idea  he  uses  in  comparison  has  been  defined  in  the 
science  of  geometry.     If,  however,  he  calls  the  flower-bed 


82  THE  MEANING   OF   STATEMENTS 

"effective,"  he  touches  on  a  personal  notion  of  beauty 
and  opens  the  way  to  endless  dispute.  Considered  from 
the  point  of  view  of  clearness  of  meaning,  ideas  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  three  sorts:  general  ideas,  pure 
ideas,  and  ideals. 

1.  General  Ideas.  Farmer  Brown,  whose  case  was 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapter,  observes  on  the  basis 
of  a  general  idea,  —  "a  piece  of  paper."  This  idea  stands 
for  a  number  of  individual  objects,  whose  place  it  takes 
in  the  realm  of  clear  thinking.  It  is  made  up,  in  theory 
at  least,  of  a  group  of  qualities,  which  may  be  thought  of 
as  so  chosen  that  all  individual  things  kno"v\Ti  to  be  pieces 
of  paper  will  have  these  qualities,  and  no  more  than  these, 
in  common.  General  ideas  are  of  such  frequent  occurrence 
that  they  may  almost  be  spoken  of  as  the  staple  material 
of  thought.  Such  are,  in  fact,  the  notions  conveyed  by 
the  greater  part  of  our  ordinary  vocabulary,  —  such 
terms  as  indicate  the  objects  of  the  senses  —  "horse," 
"person,"  "county  fair,"  "landscape"  —  and  the  various 
distinctions  applied  to  human  Ufe  — ' '  Democrat,"  "working 
man,"  "college  student,"  "friend,"  and  so  on. 

Some  general  ideas  have  been  drawn  into  the  vocabulary 
of  the  special  sciences  and  may  be  found  somewhat  clearly 
defined  in  the  form  of  what  are  called  the  scientific  classes. 
A  student  of  zoology,  for  instance,  can  explain  precisely 
the  qualities  which  are  common  to  all  the  animals  known 
as  moUusks,  and  a  lawyer  knows  exactly  what  constitutes 
a  tort.  For  the  most  part,  however,  and  except  for  a 
few  scientists,  who  make  a  nice  use  of  terms  related  to 
their  own  subjects,  general  ideas  are  sharply  defined  in 
theory  only.  In  practice,  on  the  contrary,  it  usually 
happens  that,  though  we  use  the  names  in  common,  the 
ideas  which  they  suggest  are  based  for  each  thinker,  not 
on  the  common  qualities  of  the  whole  class,  but  on  the 


IDEAS  EMPLOYED   IN  OBSERVATION  83 

most  striking  characteristics  of  the  few  individuals  that 
he  happens  to  have  met.  On  the  whole,  but  few  of  the 
general  ideas  employed  in  common  discourse  have  been 
defined,  by  those  who  use  them,  through  a  wide  knowledge 
of  really  representative  cases.  This  fact  we  shall  study 
further  in  Chapter  V. 

2.  Pure  Ideas.  A  few  of  the  conceptions  which  are 
used  in  ordinary  thinking  have  been  defined  in  a  way  to 
make  them  independent  of  the  world  of  the  senses.  They 
establish  themselves  directly  in  the  mind,  and  therefore 
need  not  rely  wholly  on  illustrations  furnished  by  facts. 
This  type  of  idea  is  met  in  philosophy,  but  is  best  illus- 
trated in  the  sciences  of  pure  mathematics.  Here  there 
is  no  attempt  to  treat  the  actual  world  as  we  find  it.  The 
mathematical  notions  of  a  straight  line,  a  point,  and  a 
surface  are  intended  to  represent,  not  facts,  but  only 
certain  aspects  of  the  physical  world  carried  out  to  the 
limit  in  thought.  No  body  can,  by  polishing,  be  given 
an  absolute  surface;  in  the  most  carefully  ground  steel 
plate  a  powerful  microscope  will  still  reveal  hollows  and 
depressions.  In  the  same  way  all  the  other  conceptions 
of  elementary  mathematics  are  idealized.  They  select 
merely  those  aspects  of  bodies  which  are  useful  in  the 
theory  of  measurement,  and  then  perfect  these  for  the 
purpose  of  thought.  These  ideas,  though  they  took  rise 
in  some  hint  given  to  the  mind  by  objects,  are  capable 
of  being  perfected  thus  because  they  can  be  explained  in 
terms  of  other  more  inclusive  ideas;  and  these  in  turn, 
like  the  conceptions  of  free  movability  and  of  a  geometric 
point  when  used  in  defining  a  surface,  have  been  defined 
without  reference  to  things  or  events.  They  are  mere 
definitions  explaining  the  relations  of  ideas,  or  else  self- 
evident  truths. 

3.  Ideals,    There  is,  finally,  a  third  class  of  ideas  which, 


84  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

to  indicate  that  they  are  based  largely  on  individual  taste, 
we  may  call  ideals.  These  it  is  which  lie  at  the  back  of 
judgments  about  what  is  pleasant  or  painful,  desirable  or 
undesirable,  and  even,  in  a  sense,  about  what  is  right  or 
wrong.  A  young  boy,  not  too  carefully  trained,  becomes 
a  member  of  a  comer  gang  and  spends  his  Sunday 
standing  in  the  doorway  of  a  store.  He  is  having  **a 
good  time."  Later,  perhaps,  at  the  high-school  stage, 
he  dresses  in  his  best  and  occupies  himself  in  a  round  of 
calls.  Finally,  with  the  seriousness  of  approaching  age, 
he  becomes  interested,  let  us  say,  in  the  study  of  electricity 
and  finds  the  day  more  pleasing  when  spent  in  his  amateur 
laboratory  over  the  construction  of  a  device  for  utilizing 
current.  So  every  age  has  its  notions  of  the  good.  With 
regard  to  such  matters  there  is,  for  the  wise  man,  no 
disputing.  In  some  degree,  to  be  sure,  one's  ideals  are 
derived  from  facts,  for  they  are  determined  partly  by 
the  extent  of  one's  knowledge.  Low  standards  are  often 
due  to  the  lack  of  experience  with  other  things.  At  the 
same  time,  in  spite  of  this  partial  connection  with  ex- 
perience, the  formation  of  ideals  is  so  closely  dependent 
upon  the  personality  that  it  often  seems  like  a  question 
wholly  of  personal  taste. 

Yet,  even  if  one's  beliefs  as  to  the  beautiful  and  the 
good  rested  wholly  on  personality,  it  would  be  unnatural 
not  to  attempt  to  justify  them  by  reference  to  principles. 
Thus  there  comes  a  stage  when  ideals  pass  out  from  under 
personal  auspices  and  pose  as  theories  of  what  ought  to 
be  true  for  all  men.  Reasoning  based  on  ideals  of  this 
sort  makes  up  the  greater  part  of  what  men  commonly 
refer  to  as  "theory."  What  is  the  proper  scope  of  the 
insurance  business?  Is  capital  punishment  justifiable? 
What  is  true  religion?  Ought  the  technical  school  to 
incline  towards  theory  or  towards  practice?    He  who 


IDEAS   EMPLOYED   IN   OBSERVATION  85 

discusses  weighty  matters  of  this  sort  attempts  to  justify 
his  views  by  referring  them  to  larger  principles,  self-evident 
propositions  of  common  sense  or  of  reason.  Since  the 
bitterest  controversies  known  to  history  have  arisen  over 
just  such  questions,  there  is  some  reason  for  supposing  that, 
even  when  they  appear  impersonal,  ideals  are  still  largely 
based  on  personal  preferences. 

It  goes  almost  without  saying  that  the  three  classes  of 
ideas  referred  to  above,  though  sharply  distinguished  for 
the  mind,  yet  in  the  real  cases  shade  into  one  another  with 
considerable  indefiniteness.  To  begin  with,  a  single  word 
may  serve  for  any  number  of  different  ideas.  When,  for 
instance,  one  speaks  of  education,  the  idea  back  of  the 
word  may  cover  one's  own  experience,  the  school  systems 
of  America,  all  formal  courses  of  study,  all  study,  even  if 
self-directed,  or  the  essential  element  in  the  mental  train- 
ing which  results.  These  are  all  general  ideas;  but  they 
differ  widely  in  the  number  and  character  of  the  individuals 
that  they  include.  Again  one  may  refer  to  those  ideal 
results  upon  mind  and  character  which  under  the  present 
system  are  nowhere  attained,  and  indeed  would  be  in 
their  perfection  unattainable,  on  account  of  the  relatively 
low  development  of  the  race.  Such  a  conception  is  an 
ideal. 

Aside,  however,  from  the  use  of  one  word  in  several 
meanings,  there  is  often  a  real  indefiniteness  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  ideas  themselves.  General  ideas,  particularly 
in  the  natural  sciences,  are  capable  of  a  degree  of  exactness 
which  relates  them  closely  to  pure  ideas;  and  pure  ideas 
in  their  turn  are  in  most  cases  originally  suggested  by  the 
familiar  qualities  of  some  class  of  objects.  Ideals,  like- 
wise, in  proportion  as  the  attempt  is  made  to  ground  them 
on  general  principles,  take  on  something  of  the  authority 
of  pure  ideas.     Still  this  indefiniteness  of  distinction  need 


86  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

not  confuse  us  as  to  the  main  lesson  to  be  derived  from 
the  study  of  ideas.  This  is,  in  a  word,  that  in  observation 
we  employ,  broadly  speaking,  three  sorts  of  standards: 
conceptions  of  the  general  qualities  of  objects  or  events; 
clearly  outlined  notions  derived  from  thought;  and  ideals 
of  worth  or  value. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  following  paragraj^hs  distinguish  the  state- 
ments based  on  ideals,  the  pure  matters  of  opinion,  from 
the  statements  based  on  general  ideas,  and  test  the  latter 
to  determine  what  would  be  the  difficulty  of  verifying 
them. 

In  the  square  bounded  by  M —  Avenue,  A — ,  B — ,  and  C — 
Streets  the  last  generation  has  seen  many  changes.  Thirty 
years  ago  it  was  inhabited  by  the  solid  families  of  the  town. 
Men  who  had  made  money  in  trade  during  the  Civil  War  had 
built  costly  houses  there.  The  squares  were  maintained  as 
parks,  the  streets  were  clean,  the  air  was  fresh  and  wholesome. 
Gradually  "down  town"  has  here  encroached  upon  a  once 
fashionable  district.  The  older  people  in  many  cases  stayed 
on,  and  the  house  was  kept  as  long  as  they  lived.  Some  few  such 
houses  remain,  but  not  many.  In  all  cases,  as  soon  as  the  last 
member  of  the  older  generation  died,  the  home  was  broken  up. 
The  well-to-do  moved  to  more  fashionable  districts;  others 
disappeared. 

In  these  families  the  second  generation,  the  boys  and  young 
men  of  thirty  years  ago,  was  generally  unsuccessful.  Among 
the  hundred  such  that  I  know,  not  ten  have  proved  economically 
worth  their  salt.  They  were  brought  up  in  luxury,  usually 
college-bred,  untrained  for  business.  They  seldom  acquired 
the  habit  of  work;  oftenest  fell  into  dissipation.  This  left  the 
girls  of  the  set  without  proper  chances  to  marry.  They  must 
either  risk  shipwreck  wdth  the  men  with  whom  they  had  been 
brought  up,  or  marry  outside  their  circle,  more  successful  men 


IDEAS   EMPLOYED   IN   OBSERVATION  87 

perhaps,  but  less  congenial.  Aside  from  the  danger  of  ship- 
wreck, marriage  for  women  of  their  education  was,  as  for  the 
better  sort  it  remains,  a  question  not  of  calculation,  but  of  feel- 
ing. For  the  most  part  they  remained  single.  Some  few, 
rather  late  in  life,  married  widowers  of  the  older  generation, 
and  went  in  as  mistress  of  a  house  where  there  were  "girls" 
with  whom  approximately  they  might  have  gone  to  school. 

2.  Note  the  confusion  which  is  introduced  into  the 
following  arguments  through  failure  to  attend  to  the 
difference  between  what  ought  to  be  and  what  is. 

(a)  (From  an  argument  on  the  benefits  of  the  elective  sys- 
tem.) By  means  of  the  elective  system  a  man  may  better  pre- 
pare himself  for  his  own  special  end,  taking  only  subjects  which 
apply  to  it.  Almost  every  man  going  to  college  must  special- 
ize shghtly,  at  least.  Look  at  a  college  where  subjects  range 
from  geology  to  philosophy,  and  from  mathematics  to  Bible 
literature.  A  man  must  pick  some  object,  and  the  elective 
system  helps  him  to  carry  his  hne  of  study  further  than  the 
prescribed  system. 

(6)  The  principle  of  unity  does  not  apply  to  letter  writing 
so  strongly  as  it  does  to  theme  writing.  A  theme  is  usually 
written  with  the  idea  of  impressing  someone  with  the  impor- 
tance of  some  subject  or  interesting  someone,  and  so  to  make  it 
forcible  the  writer  must  make  it  condensed  and  to  the  point. 

In  letter  writing  it  is  different.  Some  people  write  letters 
more  from  necessity  than  from  anything  else.  They  write 
because  they  think  this  or  that  letter  should  not  go  unanswered, 
and  so,  since  their  main  object  is  to  get  the  letter  written,  they 
do  not  need  to  try  to  keep  to  the  same  subject;  but  can  put 
down  anything  that  comes  to  mind. 

(c)  Military  drill  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects 
taken  up  at  the  school.  A  pupil  who  adapts  himself  to  the 
different  movements  of  a  body  of  men  rapidly  will  generally 
like  the  subject  and  strive  for  office.  If  every  man  would 
look  forward  to  holding  an  office,  the  work  would  be  found  much 


88  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

lighter  and  the  drill  would  be  much  finer.  To  accomplish  the 
best  work  it  is  necessary  for  each  man  to  do  his  best  and  to 
feel  that  he  is  working  in  a  good  cause.  Thus  far  the  freshmen 
have  taken  hold  of  the  drill  with  much  more  vim  than  usual; 
and,  if  this  contmues,  I  feel  that  the  result  will  be  one  of  the 
best  drilled  battalions  in  the  state. 

3.  Attempt  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  your  ideal  of 
the  highest  form  of  school  spirit.  Show,  for  instance, 
how  it  ought  to  manifest  itself  in  the  following  directions. 

Athletics  Discipline 

Other  school  acti\4ties  Attitude  of  the  teachers 

Social  life  and  good  fellowship  School  customs  and  traditions 
Attention  to  school  work 

4.  With  the  above  ideal  in  view,  draw  up  a  report  on 
the  state  of  school  spirit  in  your  own  school,  being  careful, 
80  far  as  possible,  to  base  every  statement  on  observation. 
Where  this  is  out  of  the  question,  state  carefully  the  source 
of  your  impressions. 

5.  Criticise  the  following  rough  and  partial  statements 
of  ideals  to  determine  how  far  they  are  clearly  expressed 
and  in  what  particulars,  if  any,  they  seem  unreasonable. 

(a)  I  have  often  used  the  word  "training."  Now  what  is 
training,  and  what  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  trained 
mind?  Training  is  the  discipline  that  teaches  a  man  to  set 
labor  above  whim;  to  develop  the  less  promising  parts  of  his 
mind  as  well  as  the  more  promising;  to  make  five  talents  ten  and 
two  five;  to  see  that  in  his  specialty  he  shall  work  better  and  enjoy 
more  for  kno^sing  something  outside  of  his  specialty;  to  recog- 
nize the  connection  between  present  toil  and  future  attainment; 
so  that  the  hope  of  future  attainment  creates  pleasure  in  present 
toil;  to  understand  that  nothing  can  be  mastered  without  drudg- 
ery, and  that  drudgery  in  preparation  for  service  is  not  only 
respectable  but  beautiful;  to  be  interested  in  every  study,  no 


IDEAS  EMPLOYED  IN  OBSERVATION  89 

matter  how  forbidding;  to  work  steadily  and  resolutely  until, 
through  long  practice,  —  and,  it  may  be,  after  many  failures  , — 
he  is  trusted  to  do  the  right  thing,  or  something  near  it,  mechan- 
ically, just  as  the  trained  pianist  instinctively  touches  the  right 
note.i 

(6)  A  third  source  of  influence  for  and  over  the  freshmen  .  .  . 
is  found  in  the  presence  of  proctors,  or  advisers,  or  monitors 
who  lodge  and  live  in  each  dormitory.  Such  resident  officers 
are  supposed  to  be  friends  to  each  freshman  living  in  his  (sic) 
hall  or  on  his  stairway.  But  here  is  the  rub,  the  point  of  diffi- 
culty, in  any  segregation  of  freshmen,  ...  To  get  friends  of 
the  desired  character  for  these  freshmen  represents  the  most 
serious, —  and  its  seriousness  cannot  be  overestimated, — part  of 
the  large  and  complex  problem.  To  get  men  of  the  type  which 
Arnold  wanted  for  his  teachers  at  Rugby,  of  the  type  which 
Mr.  Robert  wanted  forty  years  ago  for  his  international  col- 
lege at  Constantinople,  has  been,  is,  and  I  suppose  always  will 
be,  a  mighty  struggle.  Men  whose  intellects  are  large  and  rich, 
but  whose  hearts  are  neither  gushing  nor  cold,  men  who  are 
able  to  differentiate  between  a  principle  and  a  minor  rule,  men 
who  have  a  conscience,  but  who  are  not  obstinately  conscientious, 
men  whose  love  for  truth  does  not  cause  them  to  lose  their  love 
for  boys,  men  who  are  great  and  strong  in  character,  but  who 
also  are  sympathetic,  men  who  are  a  proper  combination  of 
both  the  mother  and  the  father:  such  men  it  will  be  gravely 
difficult  to  secure.2 

(c)  In  these  two  books  of  satire,  it  is  the  business  of  Horace 
to  instruct  us  how  to  combat  our  virtues,  to  regulate  our 
passions,  to  follow  nature,  to  give  bounds  to  our  desires,  to  dis- 
tinguish betwixt  truth  and  falsehood,  and  betwixt  our  concep- 
tion of  things  and  things  themselves:  to  come  back  from  our 
prejudicate  opinions,  to  understand  exactly  the  principles  and 
motives  of  all  our  actions;  and  to  avoid  the  ridicule,  into  which 

^  Briggs,  "  School,  College  and  Character."  Reprinted  by  per- 
mission of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

2  Thwing,  "  The  Proposed  Charges  at  Harvard."  North  Ameri- 
can Review  J  191:441.    Reprinted  by  permission. 


90  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

all  men  necessarily  fall,  who  are  intoxicated  with  those  notions 
which  they  have  received  from  their  masters;  and  which  they 
obstinately  retain,  without  examining  whether  or  no  they  be 
founded  on  right  reason. 

In  a  word,  he  labors  to  render  us  happy  in  relation  to  our- 
selves, agreeable  and  faithful  to  our  friends,  and  discreet,  ser- 
viceable, and  well-bred  in  relation  to  those  with  whom  we  are 
obUged  to  live  and  to  converse. 

Dryden,  Essay  on  Satire 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE   LIMITS   OF   IDEAS 

The  ideas  by  means  of  which  we  know  and  judge  things 
and  events  may  be  spoken  of  as  produced  by  our  mental 
power  of  abstracting.  From  a  group  of  similar  individuals 
we  separate  out  the  common  quality  and  consider  it  as 
an  independent  subject  of  thought.  Thus  a  function  of 
one  group  of  men  suggests  the  idea  of  the  teacher,  that 
of  another  the  idea  of  the  student.  Similarly  a  boy, 
reviewing  a  series  of  experiences  in  school,  forms  ideas 
about  himself.  He  comes  to  think  of  himself  as,  say, 
troublesome  to  teachers,  incapable  of  mastering  languages, 
athletic,  a  wise  man  of  the  world,  and  so  on.  These  are 
mental  standards,  which  he  has  produced.  Their  meaning, 
so  far  as  it  becomes  definite  at  all,  is  determined  by  the 
resemblance  that  has  been  observed  to  run  through  many 
separate  instances. 

Some  of  these  standards  are  simple,  others  highly  com- 
pound. Such  an  idea  as  that  of  a  man's  weight  could 
hardly  be  narrower  or  easier  to  define.  This  idea,  how- 
ever, may  either  be  thought  of  independently,  or  it  may 
be  combined  with  countless  other  simple  ideas  to  form  a 
wider  notion,  as  when  one  thinks  of  one's  self  as  a  good 
football  player.  Yet,  whether  simple  or  compound,  ideas 
have  certain  necessary  limitations.  These  we  are  now 
to  study,  with  a  view  to  determine  how  they  affect  our 
thinking. 

Ideas  are  suggested  by  actual   conditions.     Without 


92  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

blue  objects  there  can  be  no  thought  of  blueness,  and 
without  men  teaching  no  notion  of  a  teacher.  Neverthe- 
less an  idea  is  not  an  existing  thing  and  should  not  be 
mistaken  for  it.  Because,  for  instance,  in  analyzing  our 
feelings,  we  separate  mental  from  physical  relations,  it 
does  not  follow  that  mind  and  body  exist  independently, 
or  that  they  can  be  separated  otherwise  than  in  thought. 
There  is  perhaps  some  person  whom  we  call  a  friend; 
but  his  friendship  is  after  all  only  a  quality  which,  on  a 
review  of  some  of  his  acts,  we  have  assigned  to  him.  It 
cannot  be  analyzed  out  of  his  system  and  weighed;  and 
it  cannot  with  certainty  be  depended  upon  to  produce  the 
effects  that,  in  our  association  of  ideas,  friendship  has  been 
supposed  to  produce.  All  ideas,  in  short,  are  mental 
sjTnbols.  This  truth  the  student  of  logic  can  scarcely 
emphasize  too  much.  Let  it  be  said,  at  the  expense  of 
paradox,  that  there  are  in  the  real  world  no  teachers  and 
no  football  players;  but  merely  persons  who  teach  or 
who  play  football.  The  process  of  mind  which  conceives 
ideas  does  not  produce  things,  but  merely  views  of  the 
relations  of  things. 

As  a  mental  symbol  the  idea  cannot  be  useful  unless 
it  is  clear.  It  must  be  defined;  its  limits  must  be  ascer- 
tained. Mental  clearness,  however,  means  merely  separa- 
tion from  other  ideas,  or,  practically  speaking,  distinction 
between  what  is  of  a  certain  sort  and  what  is  not.  In  the 
simplest  type  of  thought,  then,  the  idea  comes  to  seem 
clear  in  proportion  as  it  is  distinguished  from  its  opposite. 
Mind  is  not  body,  says  the  inexperienced  arguer;  black 
is  not  white,  right  is  not  wrong.  He  fixes  his  opponent 
thus  upon  what  is  sometimes  called  a  "dilemma."  The 
case  imder  dispute,  he  reasons,  must  be  either  this  or  that; 
and  then,  disposing  of  one  alternative,  he  triumphantly 
confronts  you  with  the  other.     Such  arguments  are,  in 


THE   LIMITS   OF   IDEAS  93 

most  cases,  wholly  misleading.  The  mental  quality  of 
goodness,  if  clearly  defined,  does  indeed  contain  no  evil; 
but  the  same  is  in  no  sense  true  of  the  degree  of  the 
good  which  is  found  in  existing  things  and  people.  The 
good  thing  is  merely  a  measurable  reality  which  thought 
compares  with  an  ideal.  The  notion  of  goodness,  on  the 
other  hand,  is,  like  all  other  qualities,  a  standard  of  the 
mind.  It  is  no  more  a  part  of  reality  than  the  system  of 
coordinates  used  in  measurement  is  part  of  the  measured 
curve. 

An  idea  sharply  distinguished  from  its  opposite  is, 
moreover,  by  that  very  fact  raised  to  the  superlative 
degree.  Unselfishness  in  which  there  is  no  trace  of  self 
could  be  asserted  only  of  an  angel;  it  mounts  at  once  into 
the  domain  of  ideals.  The  same  truth  holds  of  any  other 
notion.  Suppose,  for  instance,  two  persons  engaged  in 
attempting  to  find  the  true  meaning  of  the  word  ''liberty." 
They  may  first  refer  to  political  history,  to  discover  in 
what  sense  men  happen  to  have  used  the  term.  Here 
they  find  much  that  is  suggestive,  but  nothing  final;  for 
there  have  been  various  ideals,  from  the  right  to  cast  a 
vote  which  may  not  be  counted  to  the  most  unfettered 
license.  Baffled  thus  in  their  historical  search,  they  next 
turn  inward,  and  each  expresses  to  the  other  his  own 
dreams  and  conceptions  of  true  freedom.  The  resulting 
definition,  if  one  be  found,  was  suggested  in  part  by  a 
study  of  actual  occurrences;  but  its  chief  boast  is  its 
independence  of  all  facts.  It  undertakes  to  teach  the 
world  something,  and  usually  of  conditions  deemed  higher 
than  the  reality,  and  more  pure. 

The  statements  of  fact  obtained  by  the  use  of  ideas 
thus  sharply  defined  are  sometimes  valuable  and  some- 
times misleading.  The  pure  ideas  of  mathematics,  applied 
to  facts,  have  been  the  instrument  of  most  modem  dis- 


94  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

covery.  Indeed  science  in  general  deals  only  with  qualities 
nicely  limited  and  exact.  This  it  may  do  with  safety, 
for  it  looks  at  real  things  only  in  the  light  of  a  special 
purpose.  Geometry  considers  the  world  as  a  system  of 
lines  and  planes,  with  a  view  to  measurement;  chemistry 
as  a  group  of  substances,  with  a  view  to  analysis,  and  so 
on  down  the  list.  Then  too  science  is  concerned  only  in 
conveying  matters  in  which  all  can  determinately  agree. 
Such  are  merely  the  simplest  qualities  and  relations  of 
things,  those  aspects,  in  short,  which  can  be  at  least 
approximately  measured.  This  limitation  makes  neces- 
sary the  use  of  a  whole  set  of  ideas  so  sharply  defined  that, 
like  the  circle  and  the  line,  they  represent  nothing  in  the 
existing  world  about  us,  but  only  the  imaginary  result  of 
certain  tendencies  there. 

With  the  subjects  of  sidewalk  argumentation,  however, 
the  same  happy  results  do  not  always  follow.  In  such 
matters  it  is  easily  possible,  by  insisting  on  a  sharply 
defined  ideal,  to  produce  surprising  and  novel  statements 
about  facts.  This  form  of  argument  usually  pretends  to 
base  its  conclusions  on  the  so-called  true  meaning  of  a  word; 
and  no  reasoning  is  more  common  or  more  inconclusive. 
When  Emerson  says,  for  instance,  that  a  man  can  suffer 
no  harm  which  he  wills  to  resist,  he  merely  idealizes  the 
definition  of  "harm."  The  real  conditions,  meanwhile, 
remain  unchanged;  the  chance  is  as  great  as  ever  of  being 
cheated  in  a  trade  or  struck  with  falling  timber.  The 
same  sort  of  juggling  with  meanings  can  produce  state- 
ments of  fact  of  any  desired  degree  of  pessimism.  Who 
can  say  what  might  be  implied  in  the  highest  ideal  of 
literature,  technical  education,  or  brotherly  love?  In 
such  lofty  flights  speculation  can  go  no  further  than  the 
guess  that,  whatever  it  might  turn  out  to  be,  it  would 
prove  hard  to  reconcile  with  the  aggregation  of  make- 


THE  LIMITS  OF  IDEAS  95 

shifts  and  compromises  which  we  call  human  character. 
Indeed  to  find  examples  of  this  false  use  of  ideal  qualities 
it  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  high.  Most  chess  players, 
like  most  hunting  dogs  and  most  students,  are  but  mediocre 
specimens;  and  this  not  so  much  on  their  own  account  as 
because  of  the  loftiness  of  the  standards  which  the  mind 
conceives  for  their  species.  There  are  in  the  game  of 
chess,  as  in  the  points  of  dogs  and  the  opportunities  of 
student  life,  such  wide  possibilities  that  only  in  the  rarest 
cases  does  the  individual  do  even  partial  justice  to  the 
ideas.  These  elements,  so  to  say,  do  not  occur  free  in 
nature.  They  are  the  result  of  an  analysis,  which  ex- 
tracts them,  often  in  microscopic  quantities,  from  the 
real  situations  it  is  attempting  to  study. 

The  dangers  which  arise  from  these  methods  of  thinking 
are  not  so  much  faults  of  the  individual  mind  as  limitations 
of  thought  itself.  Our  mental  processes,  when  clear,  are 
mathematical.  To  think,  we  must,  as  in  mathematics, 
first  state  actual  conditions  in  the  form  of  rigid  symbols, 
then  solve  our  problem  with  these  symbols,  and  finally 
interpret  the  results  again  in  terms  of  facts.  Standing 
before  an  experience,  we  are  conscious  that  here  is  some- 
thing new.  It  cannot,  however,  be  wholly  new;  it  must 
contain  qualities  already  observed  in  other  things.  These 
we  seek  for.  We  know  they  will  belong  to  thought  and 
be  capable  of  clear  definition.  Having  met  them  before, 
we  shall  know  what  to  think  of  them,  what  to  do  with 
them.  So  much  is  natural  and  inevitable;  but,  if  the  idea 
when  found  makes  us  forget  the  actual  experience;  if  we 
go  on  from  that  point  merely  juggling  with  mental  symbols, 
it  is  the  fault  not  of  nature  but  of  our  own  lack  of  common 
sense  and  logical  training. 


96  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

EXERCISES 

1.  Consider  the  possible  danger  involved  in  using  the 
following  words  as  though  they  represented  existing  things: 

The  class  of  1915,  A—  B—  High  School; 
Harvard  College; 
The  Repubhcan  party; 
American  education. 

Especially  consider  the  following  arguments  in  this 
light: 

(a)  Harvard  College  refused  me  my  degree  unjustly  in  1840. 
I  would  not  leave  them  a  cent  if  I  had  a  million. 

(b)  The  Repubhcan  party  brought  us  through  the  war,  so 
the  Repubhcan  ticket  will  always  be  good  enough  for  me. 

(c)  Harvard  College  will  always  hold  on  to  intercollegiate 
sports  because  they  are  profitable  advertising. 

(d)  Harvard  College  knows  no  distinction  between  rich  and 
poor. 

2.  Discuss  the  various  possible  meanings  of  "scholar- 
ship" and  "an  upper  class"  and  consider  whether  the 
following  arguments  use  the  ideas  always  with  the  same 
definitions. 

(a)  Why  not  allow  the  imiversity  to  deal  with  a  man  at 
the  single  point  of  intellectual  disciphne  to  the  end  of  culture, 
or  to  some  end  of  utihty?  I  will  not  attempt  ...  to  enter 
broadly  into  the  opposing  theory  of  "direct  concern"  with  the 
manners  and  morals  of  students.  I  will  state  at  once  certain 
considerations  which  seem  to  me  to  make  this  the  working 
theory  of  the  American  college  or  university.   .   .   . 

Scholarship  is  not  the  first  end  of  the  college  or  even  of  the 
university.  The  common  product  of  each  is  not  the  scholar 
by  distinction,  but  the  man  who  is  fitted  for  the  largest  uses  of 
society  and  the  state.    For  every  scholar  who  is  to  devote  his 


THE   LIMITS   OF   IDEAS  97 

after-life  to  pure  scholarship  there  are  at  least  ten  graduates 
who  are  to  give  themselves  to  more  general  callings.  It  is  not 
safe  to  lay  too  great  a  burden  upon  a  means  through  which  a 
comparatively  small  portion  will  reach  the  ends  of  their  college 
life.  It  is  too  much  to  ask  of  scholarship  to  do  everything  for 
men  who  are  not  by  first  intention  scholars. ^ 

(6)  But  it  is  of  importance  in  every  country  to  have  an  upper 
class.  These  should  rise  like  towers  and  steeples  in  our  towns 
and  villages,  hke  mountains  overtopping  the  plains,  imparting 
picturesqueness  to  the  scenery,  preserving  it  in  the  fancy,  and 
enabling  us  to  remember  it.  First,  and  in  front,  we  should  seek 
to  have  a  high-toned  moral  and  religious  class  spread  through 
the  community  like  salt  to  keep  it  from  corruption.  This, 
under  God,  is  to  be  the  safeguard  to  our  homes  and  to  the  coun- 
try generally.  But  we  need  an  aristocracy  for  other  and  noble 
ends.  We  must  have  a  highly  educated  class,  trained  at  our 
upper  schools  and  colleges,  and  diffusing  everywhere  an  elevating 
influence.  Retaining,  as  most  will,  the  true  spirit  of  science 
and  of  learning,  they  will  be  ready  in  their  localities  to  make 
provision  for  every  good  cause,  fitted  to  educate  the  young  and 
exalt  the  tastes  of  the  people  by  means  of  science,  of  literature, 
of  art.  These  men  will  give  the  tone  to  society  in  their  dis- 
tricts, and  keep  it  from  being  corrupted  by  wealth  when  it 
would  foster  extravagance  in  living,  intemperance,  and  low 
morality.2 

3.  In  the  following  famous  working  definition  test  the 
sharpness  with  which  the  amateur  is  distinguished  from 
his  opposite  the  professional. 

Amateur:  One  who  has  not  entered  in  an  open  competition; 
or  for  either  a  stake,  pubUc  or  admission  money,  or  entrance  fee; 

*  Tucker,  "  Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  the  Students  ?  "  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 

2  McCosh,  "  The  Phillips  Exeter  Lectures."  Reprinted  by  per- 
mission of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


98  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

or  under  a  fictitious  name;  or  has  not  competed  with  or  against 
a  professional  for  any  prize  or  where  admission  fee  is  charged; 
or  who  has  not  instructed,  pursued,  or  assisted  in  the  pursuit 
of  athletic  exercises  as  a  means  of  Uvehhood,  or  for  gain  or  any 
emolument;  or  whose  membership  of  any  athletic  club  of  any 
kind  was  not  brought  about,  or  does  not  continue  because  of 
any  mutual  understanding,  expressed  or  impHed,  whereby  his 
becoming  or  continuing  a  member  of  such  club  would  be  of  any 
pecuniary  benefit  to  him  whatever,  direct  or  indirect;  and  who 
shall  in  other  and  all  respects  conform  to  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  the  organization. 

4.  Attempt  a  definition  of  the  term,  "A  liberal  educa- 
tion." How  far  may  outward  marks  be  used,  as  the 
completion  of  a  certain  curriculum  of  studies?  If  results 
are  used,  how  far  may  tangible  results  be  specified?  Must 
these  results  be  moral  and  physical  as  well  as  mental? 
In  how  far  is  the  definition  thus  obtained  convenient,  i.e. 
adapted  to  some  particular  use  of  the  term,  and  not  so 
ideal  as  to  shut  out  actual  examples?  Outline  such  a 
definition  carefully  in  a  paragraph  of  two  or  three  hundred 
words.  The  follo^nng  suggestions  may  be  helpful  in  the 
study  of  the  subject: 

Liberal  education  in  the  sense  of  learning.  What  acquaint- 
ance with  books?  The  chief  works  on  every  subject  by  name? 
The  chief  facts  on  every  subject  in  memory?  Ability  to  judge 
between  good  and  bad  books?  More  definite  knowledge  of 
any  special  subject?    General  information? 

Moral  character?  Quickness  in  action?  Decision?  Appli- 
cation and  habits  of  work?  Honesty?  Toleration?  Kind- 
heartedness?    Modesty? 

Love  of  the  fine  arts?  Appreciation  of  good  literature? 
Music?    Critical  appreciation? 

Opinions  about  poHtics?  Why?  Interest  in  municipal  and 
state  affairs?    Love  of  country? 


THE  LIMITS  OF   IDEAS  99 

Bodily  health.  Physical  training?  Habits  of  body.  Fond- 
ness for  sports?    Outdoor  life? 

Personal  traits.  Ability  to  judge  men?  Tact?  Powers  of 
observation? 

5.  Review  such  cases  as  happen  to  come  to  mind  of 
works  commonly  classed  as  "good  literature"  to  see  how 
far  the  tests  offered  in  the  following  definitions  are  appli- 
cable and  how  sharply  the  given  marks  distinguish. 

"Literature,  then,  is  of  a  personal  character;  it  consists  of 
the  enunciations  and  teachings  of  those  who  have  a  right  to 
speak  as  representatives  of  their  kind,  and  in  whose  words 
their  brethren  find  an  interpretation  of  their  own  sentiments, 
a  record  of  their  own  experience,  and  a  suggestion  of  their  own 
judgments."  —  Newman,  Lectures  on  University  Subjects,  p.  20. 
Boston,  1897. 

"To  be  convincing,  literature  must  express  emotion  which 
is  genuine;  to  conamend  itself  to  the  best  sense  of  mankind,  and 
thus  to  take  its  place  in  the  front  rank,  it  must  deal  with  emo- 
tion which  is  wholesome  and  normal."  —  Arlo  Bates,  Talks 
on  the  Study  of  Literature,  p.  20.    Boston,  1897. 

6.  Examine  an  attempt  to  fix  a  scientific  definition,  as 
the  definition  of  wealth  in  Sedgwick,  "Political  Economy," 
Book  I,  Chapter  III  (London,  1883);  or  of  money,  Book 
II,  Chapter  IV. 

7.  In  Exercise  6,  Part  I,  Chapter  I,  compare  the 
statements  of  President  Harris  regarding  the  moral  tone 
of  student  life  with  your  own  knowledge  of  the  facts  in 
any  particular  institutions.  The  extract  referred  to  may 
be  regarded  as  an  attempt  to  express  in  words  a  general 
idea. 

8.  Criticise  the  following  attempt  to  define  the  essential 
elements  in  studies  that  give  mental  training.     Each  of 


100  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

the  marks  mentioned,  if  defensible,  must  show  some  con- 
nection with  the  definition  of  thinking. 

Thinking  is  a  practical  art.  It  is  learned  by  doing.  Yet 
there  are  subjects  in  the  course  which  seem  to  me  to  be  better 
fitted  than  others  to  teach  you  this  art.  I've  been  trying  to 
find  out  what  are  some  of  the  marks  or  characteristics  of  these 
subjects.  They  are,  I  think,  subjects  which  require  concen- 
tration of  thought;  subjects  which  have  clearness  in  their  ele- 
ments, yet  which  are  comprehensive,  which  are  complex,  which 
are  consecutive  in  their  arrangements  of  parts,  each  part  being 
closely,  rigorously  related  to  every  other,  which  represent  con- 
tinuity, of  which  the  different  elements  or  parts  may  be  pro- 
longed into  far-reaching  consequences.  Concentration  in  the 
thinker,  clearness,  comprehensiveness,  complexedness,  consecu- 
tiveness,  continuity  —  these  are  the  six  big  C's  which  are  marks 
of  the  subjects  which  tend  to  create  the  thinker. 

Mathematics  and  pure  physics  eminently  represent  the  larger 
part  of  these  six  elements  which  I  have  named. * 

9.  What  statement  about  the  nature  of  college  life 
underlies  the  following  piece  of  reasoning?  Is  the  state- 
ment true  as  judged  by  your  knowledge  of  the  facts? 
Will  it  be  best  to  regard  the  idea  under  which  college  life 
is  here  presented  as  an  ideal  or  as  a  general  idea? 

There  b  certainly  no  excuse  for  the  laxity  in  morals  thus 
found  in  our  colleges;  for  there  is  no  place  in  the  world  so  favor- 
able for  the  development  of  a  keen  sense  of  duty  as  here;  men  in 
the  contests  of  conamercial  life  are  apt  to  make  pecuniary 
rewards  the  goal  of  effort,  but  the  man  in  quest  of  scientific  and 
literary  facts  seeks  them  independent  of  the  warping  effects  of 
monetary  returns;  the  statesman  is  apt  to  be  reduced  to  the 
level  of  the  poUtician  as  a  result  of  inducements  incident  to  secur- 

*  Thwing,  "  Letter  from  a  Father  to  his  Son  Entering  College." 
The  Independent^  69:741.    Reprinted  by  permission. 


THE  LIMITS  OF  IDEAS  101 

ing  office;  but  the  student  in  search  of  historic  truth  is  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  largeness  of  Ufe  and  high  altruistic  motive 
rather  than  greed  for  gain  or  office  are  the  factors  that  have 
inscribed  names  on  the  roll  of  fame.^ 

^  Fordyce,  "  College  Ethics."     The  Educational  Review,  37:  494. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


CHAPTER  V 
IDEAS  AND   INDIVIDUALS 

Ideas,  we  have  seen,  are  mental  symbols,  which  in  the 
realm  of  clear  thinking  represent  concrete  individuals. 
By  their  very  nature  these  symbols  are  made  incapable 
of  reproducing  accurately  the  things  they  stand  for. 
They  are  not  pictures,  but  signs;  and  they  no  more  fully 
present  their  subjects  than  x  in  the  algebraic  problem 
is  a  photograph  of  the  unknown.  The  things  we  wish  to 
think  about  must  first  be  rendered  into  terms  of  these 
mental  a^s^  6's,  and  x's.  In  this  process  they  lay  aside 
for  the  moment  their  individuality.  Common  sense, 
logically  trained,  must  meanwhile  keep  track  of  all  that 
is  laid  aside,  and  see  that  it  is  brought  back  into  the 
thinking  whenever  it  becomes  essential  to  accurate  results. 

As  a  first  step  in  this  logical  training,  we  must  recall 
that  no  general  idea  completely  presents  an  individual 
existence.  With  the  individuals  which  most  intimately 
concern  us,  days,  hours,  localities,  domestic  animals,  and 
people,  we  take  care  to  avoid  the  difficulty  by  giving  what 
we  call  a  proper  name.  This  is  intended  to  call  to  mind 
one  alone,  with  all  its  personal  traits  about  it.  The 
general  name  may,  however,  represent  sufficient  detail  for 
present  purposes.  The  piece  of  chalk  which  one  takes 
from  a  box  on  the  desk  is  only  superficially  like  the  rest. 
The  microscope,  the  fine  balance,  and  on  close  inspec- 
tion even  the  naked  eye, — these  all  enable  the  accurate 
observer  to  give  a  long  description  of  its  personal  traits. 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  103 

So  far  as  concerns  distinction  from  the  others  of  its  class, 
it  richly  deserves  a  proper  name,  or  at  least  a  number; 
but  it  would  be  foolish  to  call  a  piece  of  chalk  "Tom"  or 
''Harry"  when  any  other  piece  from  the  same  box  will 
serve  as  well  for  writing.  This,  however,  is  only  half 
the  story.  It  would  be  equally  foolish  to  keep  on  using  a 
mere  class  idea  to  represent  a  thing  which  requires  distinc- 
tion from  the  crowd.  If  a  workman  has  in  him  the 
capacity  of  spreading  groundless  discontent  among  his 
fellows,  or  of  developing  into  an  efficient  superintendent, 
it  is  wholly  unwise  to  continue  thinking  of  him  as  merely 
a  cutter,  or  a  stitcher,  or  a  member  of  Gang  Twelve.  In 
other  words,  the  whole  question  is  one  of  expedience.  If 
we  let  general  terms  stand  in  our  minds  for  particular 
objects,  we  must  be  sure  that  they  represent  all  the  quali- 
ties of  the  objects  which  are  for  the  moment  necessary  to 
our  thought. 

One  method  of  representing  all  necessary  qualities  is 
to  choose  a  general  name  which  applies  to  only  a  limited 
class;  for,  as  the  class  grows  smaller,  the  thought  becomes 
more  comprehensive.  There  are  in  the  world,  for  instance, 
many  government  employees,  but  only  one  President  of 
the  United  States.  At  the  same  time,  though  the  latter 
term  includes  fewer  cases  than  the  former,  it  means  much 
more  and  requires  a  longer  definition.  The  smaller  the 
class  in  which  your  fact  is  included,  then,  the  less  danger 
of  loss  of  identity.  To  deal  with  facts  in  classes  is  at 
best  a  rough  and  approximate  method  of  thinking,  and 
often  leads  the  thinker  into  danger.  The  schoolmaster 
who  forgets  to  study  the  individuality  of  his  pupils,  fike 
the  business  man  who  attempts  to  handle  his  trade  wholly 
by  circular  letters,  is  not  likely  to  achieve  the  best  results. 
These  men  will  fail,  however,  not  from  adopting  a  wrong 
method,  but  from  using  a  good  method  with  clumsy  haste. 


104  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

If  the  complexity  of  their  world  prevents  them  from  know- 
ing individuals,  let  them  at  least  get  men  into  classes 
small  enough  for  appropriate  handling.  One  cannot 
work  out  details  while  thinking  of  individuals  under  the 
broadest  general  terms.  If,  for  instance,  a  student  is 
asked  to  write  of  school  spirit  as  he  sees  it  among  his 
fellows,  he  summons  up  one  or  two  hazy  recollections  of  a 
celebration,  writes,  "The  students  of  this  institution 
display  a  high  type  of  loyalty  to  the  school,"  and  falls 
back  exhausted.  A  moment's  thought,  however,  con- 
vinces him  that  his  generalization  is  too  sweeping  to  have 
much  value.  He  accordingly  looks  more  closely  at  his 
experience  and  beholds  the  men  he  knows  falling  into 
various  minor  classes,  some  pure  exceptions  to  his  rule, 
some  willing  to  contribute  money  but  not  to  work, 
some  striving  to  advance  the  reputation  of  the  school  in 
athletics  but  not  in  scholarship,  and  so  on  down  the  list. 
Even  within  the  smaller  groups,  each  person  has  his  own 
odd,  individual  mixture  of  characteristics.  So  the  sentence 
in  which  the  matter  was  first  disposed  of  seems  likely 
to  grow  into  a  book,  and,  worst  of  all,  a  book  with  no 
central  thought.  In  discouragement  the  writer  lets  the 
original  generalization  stand,  and  in  the  morning  offers 
the  extenuating  plea  that,  if  he  had  treated  the  whole 
topic,  he  would  have  needed  to  sit  up  all  night.  Indeed 
the  excuse  has  some  justification.  We  must  deal  with 
facts  in  classes;  time  and  knowledge  fail  us  for  any  other 
plan;  but  at  the  same  time  we  need  not  accept  the  first 
broad  general  idea  that  comes  into  our  heads. 

Again,  the  thinker  must  be  sure  that  he  knows  some- 
thing of  the  individuals  represented  by  the  general  idea 
which  he  selects.  The  term  he  is  using  relates  to  subjects 
of  thought,  of  one  kind  or  another,  such  as  are  or  may  be 
matters  of  observation  at  different  times  and  by  different 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  105 

people,  as  "piece  of  paper,"  ''dwelling  house,"  "teacher." 
One  who  pretends  to  employ  these  terms  in  the  correct, 
or  even  the  usual,  sense  must  claim  at  least  a  representative 
knowledge  of  the  instances  his  idea  is  supposed  to  cover. 
The  lack  of  such  knowledge,  by  people  who  believe  they 
have  it,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  bad  reasoning.  It  leads  to 
many  absurdities  that,  to  a  well-informed  mind,  would 
be  more  amusing  than  a  play.  The  accident  of  being 
beaten  in  one  case  at  law  is  deemed  sufficient  ground  for 
sweeping  condemnation  of  the  whole  legal  system,  and 
especially  of  all  lawyers.  One  who  has  in  the  last  month 
picked  up  two  or  three  second-rate  novels  is  certain  that 
fiction  has  greatly  declined  in  these  modern  times.  We 
talk  in  the  high  tone  of  generalization,  as  though  the 
world  of  such  things  were  before  us,  like  an  open  book. 
What  we  really  have  in  mind,  meanwhile,  is  only  the 
scattered  instances  that  have  fallen  within  our  own  small 
circle. 

The  lack  of  any  wider  knowledge  is,  of  course,  frequently 
excusable.  Fairly  comprehensive  acquaintance  with  the 
members  of  a  class  is  always  difiicult  to  attain,  and  some- 
times impossible.  In  the  case  of  pieces  of  paper,  dweUing 
houses,  or  teachers,  such  knowledge  might  be  roughly 
attainable;  one  who  offered  a  statement  about  one  of 
these  classes  could  in  time  be  confronted  with  the  test 
of  fact.  So  likewise  with  many  common  ideas,  and  with 
most  of  the  terms  in  the  natural  sciences.  Most  notions, 
however,  are  of  such  a  sort  that  one  can  get  only  an  occa- 
sional or  a  partial  glimpse  of  the  things  included  under 
them.  What  statements,  for  instance,  can  safely  be  made 
of  the  term  "American  colleges"  ?  Even  after  the  elabo- 
rate researches  of  recent  years,  there  are  not  many  people 
who  can  answer  in  much  detail.  Thus,  except  for  a  few 
scientific  terms,  general  ideas  either  remain  indefinite  or 


106  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

arc  defined  by  each  user  to  agree  with  the  cases  he  person- 
ally happens  to  have  met. 

Finally,  the  thinker  must  not  be  surprised  at  differences 
of  opinion.  Since  no  general  idea  can  exhaust  a  subject 
of  thought,  other  people  may  not  like  the  one  he  has  picked 
out,  and  may  even  prefer  its  diametrical  opposite.  The 
simplest  experience  has  countless  relations  with  other 
things;  it  may,  therefore,  be  brought  under  countless 
ideas.  This  truth  is  observable  more  especially  in  the 
words  which  register  our  impressions  of  things  and  events. 
A  person  unaccustomed  to  suffering  is  stricken  with  pain 
which  he  pronounces  "unendurable."  He  sends  for  a 
physician,  who  declares  the  case  **mild,"  or  turns  it  over 
to  a  hospital,  where  they  hold  a  consultation,  and  call  it 
"interesting."  In  the  same  way  the  school  boy  struggles 
half  the  evening,  with  sensations  best  known  to  himself, 
to  master  a  problem  which  the  histories  of  mathematics 
describe  as  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  demonstrations  in 
the  science."  So  the  estimate  depends  upon  the  point 
of  view.  The  character  of  most  things  we  talk  about  is 
wonderfully  complex;  it  falls  naturally  into  whatever 
class  the  preoccupation  of  the  moment  is  disposed  to 
assign  to  it. 

This  truth  is  notorious  even  under  the  more  accurate 
conditions  of  scientific  work.  Darwin  relates  that,  visiting 
Cwm  Idwal  with  a  fellow  scientist,  he  spent  many  hours 
in  a  careful  examination  of  the  valley  in  search  of  fossils. 
He  walked  over  scored  rocks  and  made  his  way  round 
perched  boulders;  round  him  extended  lateral  and  terminal 
moraines  deposited  by  glaciers.  Yet  he  did  not  notice 
a  trace  of  these  glacial  phenomena,  and  it  was  not  till 
many  years  later  that  he  came  to  see  the  place  in  this  new 
light.  Then  it  seemed  to  him  that  "  a  house  burnt  down 
by  fire"  could  not  tell  its  story  more  plainly  than  this 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  107 

valley.*  So  it  is  with  most  conditions,  even  the  simplest; 
they  are  in  themselves  indifferent,  "all  things  to  all  men.'' 
Each  mind  sees  in  them  an  instance  of  this  or  that  class; 
but  the  idea  under  which  they  are  grouped  depends  upon 
the  observer's  knowledge  and  interests,  and  is  not  neces- 
sarily the  same  for  any  two  thinkers. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  your  mind  carefully  and  set  down  your 
impressions  of  at  least  one  of  the  following  classes :  Maine 
guides;  expert  fishermen;  sailors;  newspaper  men;  pro- 
fessional musicians;  socialists;  city  politicians;  college 
athletes;  grinds;  teachers;  teachers  of  English;  self-made 
men;  the  newly  rich. 

Try  to  determine  how  much  your  views  have  been 
influenced  by  reading  and  how  much  by  personal  experi- 
ence. Have  you  known  any  individuals  of  quality  striking 
enough  to  color  your  views  of  the  whole  class? 

2.  How  shall  we  criticise  the  three  following  composi- 
tions, considering  them  from  a  logical  point  of  view? 

(a)  A  grind  is  a  sallow-faced,  sour-visaged  person,  usually 
with  spectacles,  and  of  course  a  high  forehead.  He  takes  no 
interest  in  games  or  in  the  society  of  his  fellows.  When  any  fun 
is  going  on,  he  is  to  be  found  hidden  away  in  a  comer  with  a 
book.  He  is  a  cynic,  and  always  sure  that  his  opinion  is  right 
and  everybody  else  is  wrong.  He  studies  late  into  the  night 
merely  in  order  that  the  next  morning  he  may  know  more  than 
anybody  else.    Nobody  likes  him  except  his  teachers. 

(6)  Before  we  call  a  man  a  hard  name,  it  is  well  to  examine 
his  motives.  Some  men  appear  to  work  hard  just  to  get  the 
better  of  their  class-mates  and  show  off  at  the  morning  recita- 

^  "  Life  and  Letters,"  I,  pp.  48,  49.  Cited  also  by  Cramer, 
"  The  Method  of  Darwin,"  p.  128.    Chicago,  1896. 


108  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

tion.  Of  course  it  is  a  crime  to  want  to  show  off,  and  it  is  some- 
thing that  college  men  who  speciahze  in  atliletics  or  social  Hfe 
never,  never  care  to  do!  Such  grinds  deserve  to  be  held  up  to 
ridicule.  Other  men  grind  because  they  need  a  scholarship, 
and  if  fortune  had  favored  them  with  a  Uttle  more  money, 
they  would  be  just  as  good  fellows  as  anybody  else.  Then  there 
are  some  who  have  in  mind  to  make  a  name  in  the  world,  and 
knowing  they  are  not  briUiant  have  determined  to  work  for  it. 
I  cannot  see  that  such  men  deserve  to  be  called  "greasy  grinds." 
Alas!  I  wish  I  were  one  of  them. 

(c)  My  knowledge  of  grinds  is  very  small,  for  I  never  knew 
but  one,  and  he  was  probably  not  a  genuine  case.  He  used  to  go 
home  at  once  as  soon  as  school  was  out,  and  work  all  the  evening 
and  part  of  the  night.  But  he  was  not  a  pale,  sickly  person  as 
I  imagine  a  grind  would  be.  He  had  red,  fat  cheeks,  and  a 
laugh  that  would  have  done  credit  to  a  mule.  Neither  did 
he  stand  at  the  head  of  his  class,  but  then,  as  I  have  said,  he 
doubtless  was  not  a  true  grind. 

I  should  think  a  true  grind  might  be  a  most  uncomfortable 
person  to  have  about. 

3.  Study  the  two  following  expositions  in  connection 
with  your  own  experience  of  the  New  England  farmer. 
Considering  the  class  as  a  whole,  how  many  of  the  state- 
ments in  the  first  essay  seem  safe?  Could  any  other 
general  statements  be  added?  Has  the  second  Writer 
adopted  the  most  useful  subdivision  of  the  class? 

The  New  England  Farmer 

The  men  who  make  their  h\'ing  by  tilling  the  soil  probably 
work  the  hardest  and  obtain  the  least  apparent  result  of  any 
class  of  people  in  New  England. 

Their  work  continues  the  whole  year,  and  the  regular  duties 
in  every  season  are  laborious.  There  are  planting,  sowing,  and 
preparing  the  soil  for  the  crops  to  do  in  the  spring;  in  the  sum- 
mer those  crops  must  be  cared  for,  and  the  work  of  gathering 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  109 

them  continues  into  the  fall.  Then  in  winter  they  have  wood 
and  ice  to  cut  and  haul,  and  repairs  to  make  on  the  buildings. 
These  tasks  do  not  sound  hard,  rapidly  enumerated,  but  every 
one  necessitates  heavy,  tiresome  work,  and  makes  those  who 
do  it  old  before  their  time. 

The  farmer's  day  is  very  much  longer  than  that  of  the  modern 
day  laborer.  His  rises,  on  an  average,  about  five  o'clock.  His 
first  duty  is  to  attend  to  the  hve-stock.  The  regular  work  of 
the  day  is  carried  on  till  about  five  in  the  evening,  when  the  cattle 
and  horses  are  again  tended,  and  the  chores  about  the  buildings 
are  done.    Nine  o'clock  is  bedtime  in  most  farmhouses. 

We  notice  how  these  people  toil,  and  then  we  remark,  ''So- 
and-So  is  a  thrifty,  hard-working  man;  he  must  have  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  money  saved  up."  On  closer  investigation 
we  find  that  about  ninety  per  cent  of  them  have  difficulty  in 
making  both  ends  meet,  not  because  they  are  not  thrifty  or  hard- 
working, but  because  the  results  of  their  labors  bring  them  so 
little  money,  and  the  expenses  necessary  to  keep  the  place  in 
proper  condition  are  so  great.  They  profit  by  sale  of  hay, 
grain,  potatoes,  and  perhaps  occasionally  butter  and  eggs. 
All  of  these  bring  fair  prices,  for  the  farmers  of  to-day  cannot 
be  beaten  down  in  seUing  prices.  The  money  from  these 
sales  is  the  main  part  of  their  income.  Now,  seed  and  fertifizer 
must  be  purchased.  Farm  machinery,  which  saves  labor,  to 
be  sure,  but  is  expensive,  is  needed.  Every  year  some  impor- 
tant repairs  must  be  made  on  the  buildings,  and  lumber  is  high, 
not  to  speak  of  labor.  "Of  course,"  we  say,  "it  doesn't  cost 
the  farmer  much  to  live."  This  is  because  so  many  of  the  things 
they  use  are  from  the  farm.  This  is,  indeed,  a  fortunate  thing, 
because,  if  they  did  have  to  pay  as  much  money  out  for  neces- 
sities of  fife  as  city  people,  they  really  could  not  exist.  Many 
of  them  are  "land  poor."  They  own  so  much  property  that 
they  cannot  clear  and  cultivate  all  of  it,  and  some  rests  idle 
in  their  possession,  because  no  one  else  desires  it. 

That  the  men  who  live  on  the  farms  are  a  healthy  class  of 
people  is  a  general  opinion.  To  be  sure,  they  have  the  great 
out-doors  at  their  disposal,  and  plenty  of  opportunities  for 


110  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

exercise.  To  counteract  these  advantages  are  the  disadvan- 
tages of  improper  food  and  lack  of  proper  care  for  themselves 
when  working.  They  become  rheumatic,  and  troubles  set  in 
caused  by  the  presence  at  every  meal  of  sweetmeats. 

Still,  these  people  seem  satisfied  with  their  lot.  They  are 
jolly,  and  have  a  cheerful  word  for  everyone  and  a  welcome  to 
the  stranger  to  share  what  little  they  may  have.  They  seldom 
visit  large  cities,  and,  in  fact,  have  no  desire  to  do  so,  and  it 
must  be  some  event  of  considerable  importance  which  will  cause 
them  to  take  even  a  day  off.  They  become  extremely  narrow 
in  their  views  with  respect  to  life  in  general.  They  read  the  news- 
papers very  thoroughly,  they  study  affairs  related  there,  but  this 
does  not  seem  enough  to  broaden  their  minds.  These  men  are 
quiet,  keep  more  or  less  to  themselves,  and  do  not  pry  into  the 
business  of  others,  but  in  small  conmiunities  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible not  to  know  what  neighbors  are  doing. 

The  New  England  Farmer 

The  old  Yankee  type  of  farmer  is,  I  suppose,  famiUar  to  all 
of  us.  This  type,  however,  is  slowly  disappearing,  and  it  would 
therefore  be  fallacious  to  put  all  New  England  farmers  in  this 
category. 

Roughly  speaking,  there  are  at  the  present  day  two  main 
divisions  of  the  farmer  folk;  namely,  the  descendants  of  the 
original  New  England  stock,  and  the  modern  agriculturist.  I 
intend  to  show,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  past  and  present  con- 
ditions of  each  division. 

The  Yankee  farmer,  generally  speaking,  is  a  simple,  unobtru- 
sive man;  a  true  son  of  nature,  and  a  veritable  Rip  Van  Winkle. 
In  the  days  of  his  forefathers,  ambition  was  rather  severely 
restricted.  Few  had  any  desire  to  do  more  than  satisfy  the 
wants  of  the  family.  Their  wants  were  simple  and  few:  cloth- 
ing was  made  at  home;  food  was  plentiful;  the  pleasures  of  the 
country  were  easily  obtained,  and  for  money  there  was  httle  or 
no  use.  They  had  their  cows,  sheep,  pigs,  oxen,  perhaps  a  horse 
or  two,  and  poultry.    The  children  found  pleasure  in  raising  dogs. 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  111 

cats,  rabbits,  and  even  woodchucks,  crows,  and  foxes.  The 
house  was  full  of  their  childish  trinkets,  and  everything  com- 
bined to  give  the  place  a  cosey,  homeUke  appearance.  Barley, 
buckwheat,  rye,  corn,  potatoes,  hay,  beans,  pumpkins,  fruits, 
and  garden  truck  were  the  common  and  staple  products.  But, 
as  their  occupations  were  thus  many  and  varied,  attention  was 
divided,  and  they  did  not  achieve  any  particular  success.  Since 
they  did  not  have  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  land  for  their 
living,  the  farming  was  carried  on  in  a  rather  desultory  and  hap- 
hazard manner.  Lumber  was  cheap,  and  the  buildings  were 
invariably  in  rather  good  condition.  Not  much  farm  machin- 
ery was  used,  and  most  of  that  was  home-made.  The  land, 
being  rocky  and  hilly,  was  cultivated  only  in  so  far  as  was  neces- 
sary. Even  with  a  few  years'  neglect,  it  had  a  great  tendency 
to  turn  back  into  woods. 

The  table  was  suppUed  with  plenty  of  good,  wholesome  food, 
for  wild  game  and  fowl  abounded,  and  most  of  the  farm  prod- 
ucts were  consumed.  As  a  result  of  this,  and  of  the  daily 
outdoor  occupations,  the  people  were  healthy  and  vigorous; 
sickness  was  rare. 

Such  living,  and  constant  companionship  with  nature,  make 
the  perceptions  keen.  Yet  the  farmer's  mind  was  narrow. 
Lack  of  education  had  something  to  do  with  this.  The  affairs 
of  the  day  were  not  so  pressing  as  to  claim  his  attention,  and  the 
only  available  matters  of  discussion  were  matters  arising  in  a 
community  of  farmers.  In  a  way,  he  was  isolated  from  things 
of  current  interest.  This  isolation  did  not  tend  to  broaden  his 
opinions,  which,  in  the  first  place,  were  not  original,  but  handed 
down.  But  such  ideas  as  he  did  have  were  unshakable,  and 
strictly  adhered  to.  Furthermore,  this  isolation,  and  exclusion 
from  all  but  those  of  his  kind,  threw  him  into  a  permanent  rut 
of  thought,  and,  besides,  made  him  shy  of  strangers,  and  sus- 
picious of  their  advances.  Perhaps  this  feeling  of  reserve  and 
cautiousness  was  shown  more  in  his  treatment  of  city  people  than 
anywhere  else.  The  farmer's  diffident  manner  arose  mainly  from 
his  very  simpleness,  since  he  could  not  understand  the  hurry, 
bustle,  feverish  activity,  and  continued  striving  of  the  city. 


112  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

Yet  these  people  were  happy,  contented,  and  thankful  to 
God  for  their  lot.  It  was  from  such  people  that  the  great  men 
of  the  times  arose. 

Such  was  the  life  and  such  were  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  old  Yankee  farmer;  but  his  descendants  on  the  farm  hve  a 
very  different  hfe,  in  a  changed  atmosphere. 

The  most  serious  problem  that  a  farmer  has  to  solve  is  the 
labor  problem.  In  the  old  times,  large  famihes  were  the  rule, 
and  the  children  remained  at  home  and  assisted  in  the  labor. 
Moreover,  in  the  busy  season,  the  neighbors  would  get  together, 
and,  in  turn,  help  one  another  do  the  work.  When  hired  help 
was  really  needed,  it  was  readily  obtained  at  a  low  price.  Our 
fanner  of  to-day,  however,  cannot  rely  upon  such  methods. 
Statistics  show  that  the  number  of  children  in  a  family  is  dimin- 
ishing to  an  alarming  extent.  Farmers'  boys  will. not  stay  in 
the  country,  and  the  girls  cannot,  or  will  not,  help  out  as  they 
used  to  do.  The  neighbors  cannot  assist,  for  too  often  they  also 
are  in  the  same  position.  Hired  help  is  the  farmer's  last  resort. 
Now,  farming  demands  a  certain  amount  of  skill  and  strength, 
both  of  which  are  absolutely  essential.  The  trained,  compe- 
tent, and  responsible  man  who  will  work  for  a  reasonable  sum 
cannot  be  found,  for  the  work  is  unsteady,  hard,  and  monoto- 
nous, and  there  is  not  much  money  in  it.  The  farmer  cannot 
pay  city  wages  for  farm  labor,  for  he  does  not  get  city  prices 
for  farm  products.  The  foreigner  is  available,  but  he  must  be 
taught  the  language  and  the  American  method  of  agriculture. 
Moreover,  the  country  people  seem  to  be  afraid  of  him,  and,  for 
various  reasons  which  need  not  be  entered  into  here,  don't 
want  him  in  the  house.  Machinery  might  be  of  service,  but  the 
true  Yankee  does  not  believe  in  it  and  has  not  the  money  where- 
with to  purchase  it. 

After  all,  it  is  perhaps  the  money  question  which  is  at  the 
bottom  of  farm  affairs.  The  farmer  must  now  buy  at  high 
prices  articles  which  formerly  came  from  his  farm,  as,  for  in- 
stance, clothing  and  flour.  Taxes  are  rising,  and  the  cost  of 
keeping  up  his  property  and  land  is  almost  discouraging.  So 
he  economizes  at  home  and  tries  to  get  more  out  of  the  farm, 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  113 

which  process  acts  disastrously  both  on  him  and  on  the  land. 
His  fathers  dabbled  in  many  branches  of  farming,  with  but  nom- 
inal success  all  round.  Forced  to  work  alone,  he  cannot  find 
time  for  so  many  different  occupations,  and  so  must  confine 
himself  to  a  few.  From  this  necessity  have  come  the  various 
branches  of  dairying,  gardening,  cattle-breeding,  poultry  rais- 
ing, and  general  crop  growing. 

Here  again  he  is  at  a  disadvantage,  for  he  really  does  not 
know  enough  about  any  one  specific  division  to  make  it  pay, 
being  hampered  by  the  same  old  characteristic  ways  of  his  prede- 
cessors. So  he  is  forced  to  economize  still  more  in  the  home. 
In  this  way  I  account  for  the  poor  table  of  the  present  Yankee 
farmer;  in  the  same  way  I  account  for  the  poor  condition  of 
his  home,  buildings,  cattle,  and  land.  The  latter,  after  a  few 
years  of  neglect,  improper  care,  and  strain,  deteriorates;  and 
the  farmer  is  so  much  the  deeper  in  difficulties.  Naturally, 
the  inevitable  results  of  such  conditions,  the  continual  anxiety 
of  trying  to  make  both  ends  meet,  the  thought  of  impending  and 
ultimate  failure,  have  a  deleterious  effect  upon  his  mind,  opin- 
ions, and  general  state  of  health.  He  broods  continually  over 
his  troubles  and  does  not  hke  to  mingle  with  others.  Beyond 
mere  passing  notice  and  comment,  he  takes  no  interest  in  out- 
side affairs.  His  home  contains  only  the  necessities  of  fife, 
with  nothing  to  amuse,  cheer,  divert,  or  instruct;  and  he  finds 
but  poor  solace  in  his  pipe  and  cider.  This  uncongenial  atmos- 
phere, poor  fare,  hard  work  with  no  results,  and  the  never-end- 
ing worry  have  their  effect  finally:  his  body  is  broken  and  his 
spirits  fail  him.  He  loses  faith  in  man,  and  very  often  in  God, 
for  he  comes  under  no  edifying  influence,  since  it  is  his  opinion 
that  going  to  church  is  not  worth  the  trouble  of  dressing,  miss- 
ing his  dinner,  and  neglecting  his  chores.  Plainly,  it  is  hard  to 
get  along  with  such  a  person,  who  is  not  well  disposed  towards 
anyone.  This  ill-feehng  is  particularly  noticeable  against  city 
folks,  for  the  farmer  believes  that  they  have  a  good  time  and  the 
best  of  life  at  his  expense.  He  is  ridiculed  and  avoided:  the 
popular  description  of  the  queer,  cranky  old  Yankee  is  a  sad 
reahty.    Finally  he  is  forced  to  give  up  the  struggle  in  despair. 


114  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

and  goes  to  the  successful  son  or  daughter  in  the  city.  The  farm 
is  now  abandoned. 

There  is  where  the  foreigner  steps  in.  He  comes  from  a  coun- 
try where  everyone  in  the  family  works,  and  works  hard;  where 
food  is  extremely  high  in  proportion  to  wages  received  and  he 
must  live  cheaply  to  live  at  all;  where  land  is  high  and  the  poor 
own  but  small  portions;  and  where  a  general  knowledge  of  farm- 
ing and  economy  is  more  widespread  than  in  America.  This 
man  comes  over  with  a  large  family,  a  Uttle  money,  and  a  lot 
of  good  intentions.  Land  in  New  England  is  still  comparatively 
cheap,  and  for  a  small  amount  he  gets  enough  to  cultivate. 
Perhaps  two  or  three  other  famihes  of  foreign  people  come  to 
the  neighborhood.  What  is  the  result?  The  conditions  now 
are  perhaps  comparable  to  those  formerly  existing  on  the  farm. 
There  are  large  famihes  of  persons,  strong,  willing,  and  able  to 
work.  Everyone,  even  the  youngest,  has  a  task  to  perform. 
Neighbors  co-operate,  seemingly  working  together  in  perfect 
harmony.    That  is  how  they  get  along  with  the  labor  problem. 

Their  food  is  simple,  cheap,  plain  to  the  extreme,  but  plenti- 
ful, and  they  thrive  and  work  hard  with  rations  on  which  a 
Yankee  could  not  exist;  the  greater  part  of  it  comes  from  the 
farm,  and  thus  is  stopped  another  source  of  expense  by  which 
a  New  Englander  would  be  handicapped. 

Another  important  point  is  that  the  foreigner  has  a  better 
peneral  knowledge  of  agriculture,  and  of  the  care  of  animals, 
than  the  American.  Of  course  this  helps  in  many  ways.  He 
finds  the  land  in  poor  condition,  but  he  knows  how  to  build  it 
up,  and  then  how  to  bring  it  beyond  the  stage  of  productive- 
ness to  which  the  Yankee  was  hmited.  His  animals  are  better 
cared  for  than  he  himself  and  he  gets  more  out  of  them  than 
the  old  farmer  did  out  of  his.  Here  again  is  a  saving  of  labor 
by  increased  animal  efficiency  and  more  produce  because  of 
improved  land;  this  means  more  profit  all  round. 

Most  of  this  money  goes  back  into  the  land,  for  the  immi- 
grant gives  his  care  first  to  the  animals,  then  to  the  land,  and 
last  to  his  home  and  himself.  It  is  easily  seen  that,  living  and 
farming  on  such  a  basis,  the  foreigner  is  bound  to  succeed. 


IDEAS   AND   INDIVIDUALS  115 

He  is  becoming  more  and  more  an  important  factor  in  the 
reclamation  of  New  England  farms. 

In  the  last  division  we  have  the  modern  agriculturist.  This 
division  may  be  again  divided  into  three  classes:  the  man  who 
takes  up  farming  as  a  business,  the  specialist,  and  the  capital- 
ist. In  any  case,  there  is  one  essential  point  of  agreement, 
which  is  that  farming  is  regarded  as  a  science. 

The  foreigner  makes  mistakes,  but  he  succeeds  through  his 
hard  work  and  frugality,  almost  by  main  force.  The  modern 
farmer  succeeds  because  he  knows  what  to  do,  when  to  do  it, 
and  how  to  do  it.  He  understands  finance  and  watches  the 
market  for  a  favorable  opportunity  to  dispose  of  his  produce. 
He  recognizes  the  value  of  machinery  as  a  solution  of  the  labor 
problem;  he  utiUzes  a  maximum  amount  of  machinery  and  ani- 
mal labor.  He  profits  by  the  government  attempts  to  help 
farmers.  In  short,  he  studies  the  subject  and,  better  still, 
applies  what  he  learns. 

This  class  is  invariably  of  higher  standing  in  the  world  and 
can  understand  refinement  and  culture.  Their  homes  show 
this  appreciation  of  higher  things  and  exert  a  pleasant  and 
instructive  influence.  They  are  business  men  on  a  farm  and 
are  as  interested  and  take  as  active  a  part  in  everything  which 
concerns  the  public  as  does  the  city  business  man.  Although 
the  extent  of  this  recent  system  is  not  very  great  as  yet  in  New 
England,  the  Government  Experimental  Stations  and  Agri- 
cultural Schools  are  bringing  it  more  and  more  to  the  front. 
If  their  statistics  and  bulletins  may  be  beheved,  the  success  of 
scientific  fanning  is  assured. 


j^ 


CHAPTER  VI 
LOGICAL  SUBDIVISIONS 

In  any  exhaustive  research  into  the  nature  of  a  subject, 
it  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  one-sidedness  of  the  method  of 
deaUng  with  individuals  in  classes,  but  at  the  same  time 
to  keep  its  simple  and  clear  distinctions.  This  is  done  by- 
viewing  the  subject  under  a  series  of  related  classes,  and 
thus  developing  all  that  need  be  said  about  it  from  some 
particular  point  of  view.  So  the  old-fashioned  teacher  of 
rhetoric  called  his  pupil's  attention  to  body,  introduction, 
and  conclusion  of  the  essay.  With  those  three  general 
headings  he  undertook  to  sum  up  all  that  need  be  said 
of  a  piece  of  writing  as  regards  the  point  of  view  of  its 
structure.  It  was  a  purely  mechanical  division,  as  surely 
complete  as  dividing  a  six-inch  rule  into  the  first  three 
inches  and  the  last  three;  and  yet  it  had  the  advantage 
of  presenting  three  topics  for  discussion  instead  of  one. 
This  may  be  called  the  analysis  of  an  idea.  Again,  in 
order  to  develop  his  criticism  in  greater  detail,  the  rhetoric 
teacher  classified  all  writing  as  narrative,  exposition, 
argument,  and  description.  This  is,  of  course,  the  divi- 
sion of  a  class.  These  two  illustrations  represent  the  two 
methods  of  logical  subdivision.  We  may  analyze  an  idea 
into  its  abstract  parts,  or  we  may  separate  a  class  into 
smaller  classes.  The  purpose  in  either  case  is  the  same: 
to  spread  out  a  topic  before  the  mind  and  to  secure  a 
logical  and  orderly  development. 

In  such  an  attempt,  the  first  essential  is  to  find  a  prin- 


LOGICAL  SUBDIVISIONS  117 

ciple  by  which  the  division  may  proceed.  The  easiest 
principle  to  handle,  and  the  most  surely  comprehensive, 
is  time.  If,  for  instance,  one  tells  completely  the  story 
of  the  development  of  wireless  telegraphy,  one  may  be  sure 
that  the  parts  of  the  subject  are  treated  distinctly,  and 
that  nothing  essential  is  left  out.  Another  principle 
almost  as  convenient,  and  more  generally  useful,  is  space. 
To  deal  with  the  whole  subject  of  body  armor,  it  is  neces- 
sary only  to  take  the  parts  of  the  body  one  by  one  and 
describe  the  devices  for  protecting  each.  The  students  of 
a  school  may,  by  a  similar  use  of  space  relations,  be  clas- 
sified as  those  who  live  in  dormitories,  those  who  lodge  in 
the  town,  and  those  who  come  daily  from  other  places. 
This  division  covers  the  whole  of  space,  and  so  is  evi- 
dently comprehensive. 

When  neither  time  nor  space  will  serve  for  a  division, 
some  other  principle  must  be  applied.  The  most  advan- 
tageous choice  will  often  be  found  connected  with  the 
point  of  view  from  which  the  topic  is  being  considered, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  purpose  behind  the  treatment.  In 
the  attempt,  for  instance,  to  increase  the  interest  in  a 
club  or  society,  the  members  would  be  properly  divided 
according  to  the  causes  which  keep  them  away  from  the 
m.eetings.  This  happens  to  be  a  case  in  which  the  principle 
can  easily  be  expressed  in  words.  In  other  instances, 
though  the  division  is  felt  to  be  satisfactory,  one  may  be 
completely  baffled  in  the  attempt  to  state  the  idea  on 
which  it  is  based.  International  law  recognizes  the  rights 
of  a  country  to  be  three-fold :  of  sovereignty,  independence, 
and  equality.  This  division  evidently  covers  the  whole 
ground;  and  yet  on  what  is  it  based?  Perhaps  as  good  a 
suggestion  as  any  may  be  that  it  rests  on  a  space  relation. 
Sovereignty  concerns  internal  activities,  independence  is 
freedom  from  outside  interference,  and  equality  means  a 


118  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

square  deal  in  all  reciprocal  relations  between  the  interior 
and  the  outside  world. 

Whatever  the  principle,  it  should,  in  theory,  fulfil  two 
requirements:  first,  its  classes  must  not  omit  anything 
important;  and  second,  they  must  not  be  of  such  a  sort 
that  the  same  individuals  can  fall  within  two  or  more. 
For  example,  an  instructor,  studying  the  motives  to  which 
he  can  appeal  to  get  good  work,  may  divide  his  students 
into  four  classes:  those  who  work  to  please  the  teacher; 
those  who  enjoy  their  work;  those  who  wish  to  learn; 
and  those  who  work  because  they  are  accustomed  to  obey 
orders.  In  attempting  to  criticise  this  division,  he  first 
asks  himself  whether  there  may  not  be  some  men  not 
included  in  any  of  the  groups.  This  question  he  cannot 
answer  with  certainty.  The  principle  behind  the  division 
is  cause;  and  there  may  be  at  work  a  thousand  causes  of 
which  he  has  no  idea.  On  this  first  point,  then,  he  can 
say  only  that  at  present  no  other  important  cause  occurs 
to  him.  The  second  step  in  his  criticism  will  be  to  ascer- 
tain whether  there  are  students  who  belong  in  two  classes. 
If  those  who  wish  to  learn  are  also  those  who  enjoy  their 
work,  then  he  will  do  better  to  drop  one  class  of  the  two, 
or  to  try  some  other  scheme  of  division.  So  he  attempts, 
as  far  as  conditions  permit,  to  secure  the  two  theoretical 
requirements  of  comprehensiveness  in  the  whole  scheme 
and  mutual  exclusiveness  in  the  subdivisions. 

The  principle,  once  selected,  may  lead  to  the  division  of 
an  idea,  or  to  the  separation  of  a  class  into  smaller  groups. 
The  simplest  method  of  dividing  an  idea  is  to  take  the 
qualities  which  would  go  to  make  up  a  definition  or 
description  and  develop  them  separately  as  subtopics. 
A  student,  let  us  say,  wishes  to  speak  before  his  class  on 
the  German  theatres.  He  wants  his  talk  to  move  ahead 
by  obvious  steps,  and  he  wants  an  outline  which  will  hold 


LOGICAL   SUBDIVISIONS  119 

his  own  mind  down  to  details.  Therefore  he  concludes 
to  deal  first  with  the  theatre  system,  second  with  the 
actors,  and  third  with  the  plays.  This  is  obvious  logic; 
one  needs  no  knowledge  of  Germany  to  invent  the  scheme, 
for  it  rests  merely  on  the  statement  of  theory  that  every 
theatre  must  have  a  management  and  actors  and  plays. 
In  a  similar  way,  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere  may  be 
classified  as  those  due  to  its  own  nature,  as  oxidation  and 
carbonation;  those  due  to  its  state,  as  freezing  and  thawing; 
and  those  due  to  associated  things,  as  deposits  of  dust  and 
loess,  light  in  shadowed  places,  and  colors  in  the  evening 
sky.  The  logic,  again,  is  obvious.  Even  an  inhabitant 
of  the  moon,  wholly  unaccustomed  to  atmosphere,  must 
know  that,  whatever  it  is,  it  has  a  nature,  a  state,  and 
relations  with  other  things.  This  is  plainly  a  division 
based  on  the  nature  of  the  idea. 

Most  divisions  of  an  idea,  however,  are  not  of  this 
obvious  sort,  but  call,  rather,  for  knowledge  of  the  special 
case.  Of  such  a  kind,  very  frequently,  is  the  outline  of  a 
book  or  long  special  article.  In  dealing  with  sugar,  for 
instance,  one  might  treat  of  its  chemistry,  its  culture,  its 
manufacture,  its  history,  and  its  statistics.  A  complete 
explanation  of  electric  submarine  mines  would  involve  an 
account  of  the  source  of  the  power,  the  position  of  the 
source,  the  position  of  the  mines,  the  communication, 
the  method  of  springing  the  mines,  safety  appliances,  and 
the  advantages  of  this  type  of  mine.  In  both  these  cases 
only  a  few,  if  any,  of  the  headings  can  be  derived  from  the 
idea  itself.  The  others,  though  important,  are  accidental 
qualities.     Experience  alone  can  discover  what  they  are. 

The  second  type  of  division  relates  to  the  individual 
cases,  rather  than  to  the  idea.  In  this  kind  the  off-hand 
method  of  pure  theory  is  not  frequently  to  be  applied. 
A  good  working  division  of  a  class  presupposes,  in  most 


120  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

subjects,  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  facts.  A  layman 
might  divide  fungi  into  edible  and  non-edible.  That 
would  be  at  least  a  natural  step  in  thought,  though  by  no 
means  logical  or  necessary.  Further  than  that  he  could 
not  go  without  study  of  the  instances.  The  next  principle 
of  division  might  turn  out  to  be  form,  or  color,  or  any  one 
of  several  other  qualities.  In  the  same  way  a  person  with- 
out technical  knowledge  might  assume  that  earthquakes 
could  be  classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  disturb- 
ance from  which  they  arose.  There,  however,  he  must 
stop.  As  to  the  fact  and  as  to  the  list  of  causes,  if  any, 
he  would  need  the  advice  of  a  specialist. 

There  is  one  sort  of  subdivision  of  a  class  which  happens 
to  be  comprehensive,  obvious,  and  fatally  easy  to  handle. 
It  is  the  separation  of  those  which  are  of  a  particular  kind 
from  those  which  are  not.  In  attempting  to  use  this 
method  the  thinker  will  need,  more  than  anywhere  else, 
to  remind  himself  of  what  he  knows  of  the  relation  between 
ideas  and  subjects  of  thought.  If  the  student  of  this  book 
has  not  suffered  from  the  distinction,  already  referred  to, 
between  those  who  are  good  and  those  who  are  not,  he 
must  at  least  have  met  that  between  those  who  have 
reached  years  of  discretion  and  those  who  have  not. 
This  classification  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  theory  of  disci- 
pline in  almost  every  home.  Another  two-part  division 
no  less  troublesome  is  that  between  those  who  know  a 
subject  and  those  who  do  not.  We  meet  it  daily  in  the 
class-room,  and  have  it  forced  upon  us  by  teachers  who 
are  perhaps  not  any  longer  students.  The  trouble  with 
all  such  disjunctions  is  that  they  are  not  comprehensive. 
They  leave  out  of  count  a  third,  intermediate  class,  which 
usually  contains  the  precise  case  that  is  in  dispute. 

In  the  subdivision  of  a  class  it  is  highly  important  that 
all  the  qualities  of  individuals  in  the  smaller  groups  be 


LOGICAL   SUBDIVISIONS  121 

naturally  associated  with  one  another,  and  with  the  pur- 
pose of  the  division.  If  that  be  the  case,  any  convenient 
external  sign  may  be  adopted  as  a  badge  of  distinction. 
It  would  be  of  no  consequence,  for  instance,  that  a  certain 
group  of  animals  have  hoofs,  except  that  this  peculiarity 
is  accompanied  with  others  which  distinguish  this  kind 
clearly  from  all  the  remaining  classes.  Such  a  combina- 
tion of  an  associated  group  of  qualities  makes  a  useful 
subdivision.  Again,  it  might  occur  to  us  to  classify 
weapons  according  to  their  material.  In  that  case,  how- 
ever, we  should  have  the  stiletto  and  the  automatic  pistol 
incongruously  placed  together;  and  the  class  would  be 
useless  as  a  means  of  developing  thought.  Once  more, 
suppose  a  school  in  which  regular  courses  of  studies  were 
laid  down  in  requirement  for  the  degree.  It  might  then 
be  natural  for  the  cataloguer,  thinking  only  of  separating 
those  in  line  for  graduation  from  the  others,  to  divide  the 
list  into  regular  and  special  students.  This  would  be 
purely  a  business  matter,  with  no  purposed  implication  of 
praise  or  blame.  Special  students,  however,  would  in- 
clude both  those  who  had  failed  in  the  regular  courses 
and  those  who  had  never  desired  to  undertake  them. 
If  this  fact  were  called  to  the  cataloguer's  attention,  he 
would  see  that  one  of  his  classes  included  qualities  not 
related  to  his  main  purpose,  and  would  reform  it.  He 
would  perhaps  group  the  students  thereafter  as  regular, 
irregular,  and  special.  Thus  a  classification  must  be  not 
only  comprehensive  and  distinct,  but  adapted  through- 
out, in  every  minor  group  of  qualities,  to  the  purpose 
under  which  it  was  drawn  up. 

Finally,  in  dealing  with  these  subdivisions,  one  must 
observe  the  general  caution  that  applies  to  the  use  of  all 
ideas.  Mental  distinctions  are  not  always  the  same  as 
differences  of  fact.     In  every  classification  there  will  be 


^. 


122  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 

found  individual  cases  that  fall  on  the  line  and  are  cut 
clean  in  two  by  the  demarcation.  Part  of  their  qualities 
belong  with  one  group  and  part  with  another.  The 
artificial  lines  which  we  draw  do  not  exist  in  nature.  They 
are  drawn  through  thought,  and  that  merely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rendering  the  measurement  of  nature  more  exact. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  the  classification  implied  in  the  following 
statements?  Explain  the  principle  when  possible  and 
define  the  words  employed  in  naming  the  subdivisions. 

(a)  Adverbs  express  either  the  place  of  an  action,  its  time,  its 
cause,  or  its  manner. 

(6)  In  proportion  as  modem  science  gets  more  and  more 
mastery  of  details,  scientists  tend  to  become  interested  in  facts, 
to  the  exclusion  of  a  wider  view  of  the  theories  involved. 

(c)  The  earlier  preachers  of  this  theology  set  the  ideal  of  tlie 
Christian  life  so  high  that  persons  obliged  to  get  along  in  con- 
tact with  the  real  world  thought  a  long  time  before  allying 
themselves  with  the  church. 

(d)  Scientific  management  takes  the  form  of  the  application 
of  mathematics  and  exact  methods  to  every-day  work.  Sub- 
stantially it  is  nothing  more  than  the  use  of  conmion  sense  in 
business. 

(e)  Thoughts,  emotions,  desires, — in  short,  all  the  physical  and 
mental  states, — are  mere  qualities  of  the  human  spirit.  What 
the  thing  itself  may  bfefsubstanHaJl^  we  have  no  way  of  Knowing. 

Jj)  It  seemshard  treatment  to  tax  a  man  on  the  basis  of  a  neces- 
sary quality,  like  the  mere  fact  of  being  alive.  Accidents, — 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  possession  of  four-percent  bonds,  —  he 
may  perhaps  owe  to  the  protection  of  government  and  be  bound 
to  pay  for. 


2.   International    law    covers    the    relations    between 
states.     Examine  the  two  following  subdivisions  of  such 


z. 


LOGICAL   SUBDIVISIONS  123 

relations.     Is  there  any  principle  behind  either  so  that 
we  may  judge  of  its  completeness? 

{a)  Commerce,  travel,  govermnent,  war. 

(6)  Rights  against  other  states;  rights  of  territory;  of  inter- 
course; of  foreigners  within  a  state;  of  ambassadors;  of  treaties; 
of  war. 

3.  Divide  the  subject  of  transportation  according  (a) 
to  the  nature  of  the  route  and  (6)  to  the  nature  of  the 
vehicle.  Which  method,  or  what  mixture  of  the  two,  is 
best  for  a  development  of  the  subject? 

4.  Study  the  two  following  divisions  of  the  primary 
wants  of  the  race.  Consider  them  first  as  theoretical 
divisions  and  then  in  the  light  of  their  usefulness  in  de- 
veloping an  account  of  the  useful  arts,  the  trades,  manu- 
factures, and  so  on,  which  minister  to  these  wants. 

(a)  Necessities,  conveniences,  comforts,  and  luxuries. 
(6)  Sustenance,  clothing,  shelter,  transportation,  defence  and 
offence,  enjoyment. 

5.  The  following  is  the  list  of  activities  usually  assigned 
to  municipal  governments.  Is  there  any  way  of  telling 
whether  the  list  is  complete?  Is  it  based,  for  instance, 
on  the  primary  wants  of  the  race,  or  on  the  definition  of 
city  life?  Judging  by  the  conclusion  which  you  reach, 
does  the  question  of  adding  a  new  activity,  as  for  in- 
stance ownership  of  an  electric  lighting  plant,  depend  in 
any  degree  on  logic? 

Ways  and  means  of  communication  and  transportation. 
Water  and  hghting  supplies. 
Municipal  markets. 
Disposal  of  wastes: 

Sewage,  garbage,  and  rubbish. 

Street  cleaning. 


124 


THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 


Protection  of  life,  health,  and  property: 

Police. 

Courts. 

Board  of  health. 

Fire  department. 

Building  inspection. 
Education. 
Recreation: 

Playgrounds. 

Parks. 
Charities  and  correction. 

6.  Suppose  that  the  student  has  read  the  story  of 
Naaman,  as  referred  to  in  Part  I,  Chapter  II,  and  wishes 
to  develop  and  at  the  same  time  to  arrange  his  ideas  as 
to  the  character  of  Naaman.  He  makes  three  separate 
outlines,  tr^-ing  each  time  a  new  principle  of  classification, 
as  follows: 

The  Character  of  Naaman 


I. 


(Time) 


n. 


(QuaUty) 


in. 


(Cause) 


(1)  Attitude  of  mind   before  hearing  of   the 

prophet. 

(2)  Reasons  for  taking  journey. 

(3)  Behavior  in  the  presence  of  Elisha. 

(4)  Reasons  for  bathing  in  the  Jordan. 

(5)  State  of  mind  after  the  healing. 

(1)  Arrogance. 

(2)  Willingness  to  be  advised. 

(3)  Frankness. 

(4)  Generosity. 

(5)  Capacity  for  faith. 

(6)  Religious  feeling. 

(1)  Previous  training. 

(2)  Religious  notions. 

(3)  Surroundings. 

(4)  Position. 


LOGICAL   SUBDIVISIONS  125 

(5)  Occupation. 

(6)  Effect  of  Elisha's  reception. 

(7)  Effect  of  the  servants'  advice. 

(8)  Effect  of  the  cure. 

Study  the  above  outlines  to  determine:  (1)  which 
will  give  the  writer  most  assurance  of  having  covered 
the  subject  thoroughly;  (2)  which  will  most  expose 
him  to  the  danger  of  repetition;  and  (3)  which  will  be 
most  likely,  when  filled  out,  to  give  a  natural  and  con- 
vincing character  sketch  of  Naaman. 

7.  The  points  of  view  suggested  in  Exercise  4,  Part  II, 
Chapter  II,  should  be  carefully  studied  as  examples  of 
classification.  In  each  set  of  headings  (as  A  and  B;  A, 
I  and  II;  A,  I,  1,  2,  3,  etc.)  study  the  completeness  of  the 
classification  and  the  idea  on  which  it  is  founded.  Try 
especially  to  suggest  a  more  complete  set  of  headings  for 
the  social  life  of  the  community  (B,  II). 

8.  Study  the  following  division  of  the  results  of  a  lib- 
eral education.  It  should  be  comprehensive  and  the 
standards  chosen  are  intended  to  be  useful  in  developing 
statements  that  will  be  important  and  characteristic  of 
the  liberally  educated  man.  Can  you  suggest  changes  or 
additions? 

Intellectual  results:  Reason 

Mastery  of  facts:  .  Creative  power 

Science  Application 

Literature  Appreciation 

History  Moral  results: 
Language  Self-restraint 

Development  of  mind:  Unselfishness 

Memory  Religious  feeUng 

Imagination  Manners: 
Judgment  Tact 


126  THE  MEANING  OF  STATEMENTS 


mere: 

Physical  results: 

Breeding 

Exercise 

Bearing 

Cleanliness 

Speech 

Temperance 

9.  The  following  is  an  incomplete  set  of  headings 
designed  to  apply  to  the  students  attending  any  high 
school.  Try  to  fill  it  out  by  adding  all  the  headings 
necessary  to  produce  a  complete  report  on  the  student 
body.  How  many  of  'the  topics  on  your  list  would  be 
of  interest  to  the  high-school  principal?  to  the  athletic 
manager?  to  the  salesman  who  visited  town  with  samples 
of  sporting  goods? 

Number  Occupation  of  father  Religion 

Age  Nationality  of  parents  Scholarship  standing 

Sex  Income  of  parents  Fraternities 

Residence  Allowances  Support  of  athletics 

10.  Devise  a  set  of  headings  for  a  card  catalogue, 
three  inches  by  five  inches,  on  which  the  scholarship  com- 
mittee of  a  college  may  record  information  regarding  its 
scholarship  applicants. 

11.  A  young  engineer  has  determined  to  make  himself 
a  specialist,  with  a  view  of  writing  and  talking  on  aero- 
nautics. He  is  beginning  to  use  a  filing  cabinet.  Suggest 
as  many  convenient  titles  as  occur  to  you  for  the  envelopes. 


PART  III 

THE  VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF 
OF    STATEMENTS 

In  Part  III  we  are  to  consider  the  final  question  of 
logic,  that  of  the  relation  between  our  facts  and  those 
of  other  people.  In  the  conflict  of  opposing  points  of 
view,  we  are  forced,  sooner  or  later,  to  decide  who  is  right. 
Philosophically  and  logically,  this  question  cannot  be 
answered  till  its  form  is  changed;  but  practically  it  can. 
One  may  be  right  in  any  one  of  several  senses.  There  is, 
first,  a  variety  of  truth  which  may  be  called  external. 
It  is  in  agreement  with  the  experience  of  the  majority  of 
well-informed  observers.  This  kind  may  rest  on  direct 
testimony  as  to  the  fact,  or  on  a  law  of  how  such  facts 
generally  work  out.  In  the  latter  case  the  statement  is 
verified  only  indirectly,  through  a  process  of  reason,  and 
is  not  known  to  be  certainly,  but  only  probably  true. 
The  second  variety  of  truth  is  mental.  Its  statements 
rest  immediately  upon  ideas,  and  do  not  need  the  evidence 
of  the  senses  for  their  support.  Finally,  both  external 
truth  and  mental  truth  demand  a  social  backing.  The 
observation,  the  law,  or  the  definition  must  be  supported 
by  the  majority  of  intelligent  people  concerned.  There 
is  no  other  basis  on  which  they  can  lay  claim  to  be  called 
the  truth. 

Chapter  I,  continuing  in  the  line  of  Part  II,  Chapter 
III,  distinguishes  statements  of  physical  conditions  from 
statements  about  ideas.      In  Chapter  II  are  explained  the 


128    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

more  direct  methods  of  arriving  at  the  truth,  observation, 
already  treated,  and  reports  of  the  observations  of  other 
people.  In  this  connection  the  student's  attention  is 
called  to  the  great  storehouse  of  authoritative  statement 
to  be  found  in  reference  books,  and  he  is  asked  to  examine 
a  few  of  the  compilations  most  useful  in  general  reading. 
Chapters  III  and  IV  discuss  the  methods  of  arriving 
indirectly  at  truth  which  cannot  be  directly  observed. 
That  is,  one  may  judge  of  its  probability  on  the  basis  of 
what  is  usually  true  of  similar  things,  or  in  the  light  of 
established  sequences  of  cause  and  effect.  In  Chapter  V 
is  shown  the  method  of  developing  theoretical  truth, 
through  deduction  from  larger  and  more  widely  inclusive 
statements  of  theory. 

The  exercises  in  Part  III  are  almost  wholly  critical 
and  analytical.  Students  who  have  sufficient  time  to 
devote  to  the  subject  should  in  addition  write  arguments 
and  engage  in  oral  debates.  In  this  way  they  will  speedily 
provide  themselves  with  a  multitude  of  interesting  and 
amusing  examples  for  analysis.  The  debates  should  be 
informal  and  will  require  no  text-book  in  argumentation 
for  their  guidance.  The  essentials  are  merely  a  suitable 
subject,  as  timely  and  personal  as  may  be,  and  material 
for  such  reading  as  time  permits.  The  choice  of  subject 
must  be  left  to  the  teacher  and  his  class.  In  the  selection 
of  material,  if  the  subject  be  one  of  general  public  interest, 
the  Appendix  on  reference  books  should  prove  helpful. 


/, 

CHAPTER  I 
STATEMENTS  OF  FACT  AND  STATEMENTS  OF  THEORY 

Statements  obtained  by  the  use  of  general  ideas,  pure 
ideas,  and  ideals  are  of  two  sorts,  each  necessary  to  the 
process  of  thought,  but  each  independent  of  the  other 
and  setting  up  its  own  standards  of  accuracy.  One  of 
these  classes  relates  to  actual  conditions,  the  other  to 
theories.  The  distinction  between  the  two  is  in  general 
not  difficult  of  illustration.  If,  for  instance,  I  allege  that 
during  the  last  municipal  election  no  Democrat  voted  the 
independent  ticket,  I  refer  to  a  state  of  things  in  the  out- 
side world  of  experience.  In  attempting  to  back  up  such 
a  statement,  I  need  not  rely  upon  the  opinions  of  an 
authority,  however  weighty,  and  I  do  not  appeal  to  reason; 
rather  I  go  out  and  compile  statistics  or  take  testimony. 
The  matter  concerns  a  large  group  of  individual  cases,  a 
general  idea,  and  can  be  finally  settled  only  through  an 
appeal  to  evidence.  Such  assertions  may  be  called,  for 
lack  of  a  better  name,  statements  about  facts. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  I  assert  that  no  true  Democrat 
will  ever  vote  the  independent  ticket,  my  meaning  is, 
obviously,  that  no  man  who  bolts  from  his  party  is  worthy 
of  the  name  of  Democrat.  A  position  of  this  sort  no 
appeal  to  facts  can  finally  establish,  but  only  an  agree- 
ment as  to  the  proper  meaning  of  a  term.  The  thought 
behind  the  word  ''Democrat"  is  in  this  case  an  ideal, 
but  the  same  sort  of  reasoning  might  equally  well  be  based 
on  a  pure  idea.  The  point  is  that,  in  either  case,  to  prove 
the  assertion  recourse  would  be  had  to  precisely  those 


130    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

means  which  were  found  valueless  in  establishing  the 
truth  of  a  statement  about  fact.  One  would  need  either 
to  overwhelm  an  opponent  by  quoting  authorities,  or  to 
reason  him  out  of  his  position  by  reference  to  some  defini- 
tion with  which  he  nmst  agree.  Assertions  which  need 
to  be  supported  in  this  fashion  may  be  called  statements 
about  theory. 

The  distinction  between  facts  and  theories  is,  like  any 
other  distinction  made  in  thought,  merely  a  convenient 
method  of  analysis,  intended,  for  greater  ease  of  under- 
standing, to  separate  two  qualities  not  always  kept 
separate  in  reality.  In  using  this  distinction  we  are  to 
remember  that  any  particular  statement  may  on  ex- 
amination prove  so  ambiguous  that  no  one  can  exactly 
determine  whether  the  speaker  meant  it  in  a  theoretical 
or  in  an  actual  sense.  The  speaker  himself  will  often  be 
puzzled  to  know.  If  we  put  to  him  the  question,  "Are 
you  talking  now  on  the  basis  of  your  experience  with 
facts,  or  do  you  mean  that  the  thing  seems  to  you  in 
theory  likely  to  be  so?"  he  will  probably  reply,  "It  seems 
to  me  that  it  must  be  so,  but  at  the  same  time  I  have  had 
a  certain  amount  of  experience  which  confirms  my  view." 

Statements  of  fact,  pure  and  simple,  with  no  admixture 
of  theory,  are  comparatively  infrequent.  They  would 
need  to  be  made  by  what  is  called  a  pure  observer,  one 
who,  like  a  sensitive  plate  or  a  seismograph,  makes  it  his 
business  merely  to  register  what  goes  on  before  him. 
This  is  the  ideal  attitude  in  the  beginning  of  any  scientific 
problem.  There  the  observer  attempts  to  devoid  his 
mind  of  feeling  and  of  prejudice,  so  that  he  may  attend 
strictly  to  facts.  The  errors  in  observation  arise  in  large 
part  from  the  difl&culty  of  attaining  this  mechanical  per- 
fection. The  natural  man,  having  been  nicely  put  to 
sleep,   is   constantly  waking,   and  sadly  interrupts  the 


STATEMENTS   OF   FACT   AND   OF  THEORY     131 

working  of  the  machine.  He  is  constantly  throwing  out 
disquieting  suggestions  of  what  he  thinks  ought  to  be, 
or  what  he  prefers;  and  the  moment  the  mind  attacks 
these  questions  it  is  no  longer  in  a  condition  to  deal  with 
pure  statements  about  facts.  Facts  belong  solely  in  the 
world  of  what  is. 

Since  the  world  of  facts  has  appropriated  the  question 
of  what  is,  there  remain  for  theory  only  two  other  matters : 
namely,  what  must  be  and  what  ought  to  be.  What  must 
be  can  never  be  determined  through  observation,  for 
nature  knows  no  necessities,  or  at  least,  if  she  knows 
them,  she  has  not  commimicated  them  to  us.  The  laws 
of  the  laboratory  are  not  like  those  of  the  legislature; 
they  make  no  pretence  of  dictating  to  facts.  If,  for  in- 
stance, one  says,  *' Silver  is  always  tarnished  in  the  presence 
of  sulphur,  and  when  I  put  my  watch  in  my  match-pocket 
I  ought  to  have  known  that  it  would  be  blackened,"  one 
uses  an  expression  sufficiently  accurate  for  common  speech, 
but  still  not  exact.  More  nicely  put,  the  thought  would 
run,  "Silver  has  always  been  observed  to  tarnish,  and  so 
the  watch  will  in  all  probability  be  blackened. '^  As  to 
the  necessity  of  the  case,  no  man  could  fairly  make  an 
assertion  unless  he  had  the  thing  under  his  own  control. 
He  can  say,  **  This  must  be,"  where  his  own  will  is  sufficient 
to  produce  it;  but  in  regard  to  changing  the  chemical 
properties,  —  or  even  guaranteeing  them  against  change, 
—  the  will  has  not  the  slightest  effect.  There  is  one  way, 
and  only  one,  of  getting  round  the  obstacle  and  arriving 
at  a  statement  of  what  must  necessarily  be  true;  that  is 
to  shift  the  definition  till  it  suits  the  case.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  by  a  miracle  the  silver  were  for  once  pre- 
served from  tarnishing.  Then  the  owner,  who  had  asserted 
that  it  must  become  discolored,  could  still  save  the  day 
by  denying  that  the  material  was  really  silver.     Even 


132    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

when  confronted  with  chemical  tests,  he  might  still  hold 
out,  with  the  assertion  that  nothing  could  be  really  silver, 
in  his  sense,  unless  it  were  found  to  tarnish.  Thus  he 
could  remove  the  whole  dispute  from  the  world  of  facts 
and  take  up  an  impregnable  position  in  the  world  of  defini- 
tions and  theories. 

Such  a  procedure,  though  a  bit  fantastic  in  this  case, 
is  characteristic  enough  of  human  nature,  and  may  be 
matched  \vith  a  thousand  instances  from  daily  hfe.  A 
commercial  agent  sells  you  a  machine  which  is  warranted 
with  proper  care  to  last  ten  years.  If  it  breaks  down  on 
the  first  day,  he  has  merely  to  throw  you  back  on  the 
definition,  —  you  did  not  give  it  proper  care.  Or  again, 
another  tells  you  that  he  has  a  doctrine,  or  a  medicine, 
which,  if  taken  in  faith,  will  cure  all  your  ills.  You  try 
it  without  results,  but  the  experiment  is  inconclusive,  for 
no  doubt  you  lacked  the  faith.  Even  if  the  whole  world 
tried  it  and  failed,  it  could  still  be  pointed  out  that  there 
is  no  true  faith  this  side  of  Heaven.  With  such  reserva- 
tions it  is  quite  possible  to  make  assertions  about  what 
must  be,  for  they  relate,  fundamentally,  to  ideas,  which 
can  always  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  speaker.  They  have 
on  the  face  of  them  a  guarantee  that  they  belong  among 
theories,  for  they  are  in  every  way  independent  of  the 
world  of  facts. 

The  second  department  of  theories,  the  question  of 
what  ought  to  be,  relates  to  the  use  and  definition  of  ideals. 
This  is  a  type  of  thinking  in  which  the  mind  frees  itself 
from  obhgation  to  the  facts  given  it  by  experience  and 
produces  standards  of  its  own.  Theories  of  this  sort  cover 
what,  broadly  speaking,  we  call  the  difference  between 
*'good"  and  "bad."  If,  for  instance,  we  permit  Farmer 
Brown  to  serve  us  again  by  way  of  illustration,  we  may 
suppose  that,  driving  home  from  church  in  a  reasonably 


STATEMENTS   OF   FACT   AND   OF  THEORY     133 

social  mood,  he  desires  to  make  conversation  with  his 
wife.  He  comments  on  the  sermon;  it  was  in  his  opinion 
remarkably  good.  If  Mrs.  Brown  happens  to  be  unre- 
sponsive, her  opening  for  dissent  is  clear.  She  expresses 
a  wish  that  the  preacher  would  drop  his  theology  and  talk 
a  little  practical  reUgion.  After  recovering  from  this 
rebuff,  the  farmer  may  try  again.  He  saw  Ruben  Wildfire 
at  church  with  his  wife  and  imagines  him  to  be  doing 
better  lately.  Mrs.  Brown  doesn't  know  what  he  means 
by  **  doing  better."  Every  time  she  goes  to  the  store  she 
sees  Ruben  sitting  idle  on  a  soap  box.  If  in  an  unusually 
placid  frame  of  mind,  Farmer  Brown  may  try  a  third 
opening.  It  was  a  pretty  hat  Nelly  Grey  had  on.  Again 
Mrs.  Brown  is  unable  to  agree.  She  doesn't  know  what  he 
means  by  ''pretty";  it  was  last  summer's  hat  made  over. 
At  the  close  of  such  a  conversation  Farmer  Brown  is 
likely  to  feel  that  he  has  been  abused.  The  logical  mind, 
however,  can  see  plainly  that  his  overthrow  was  due 
chiefly  to  an  unfortunate  choice  of  subjects.  Without  in 
the  least  intending  it,  he  has  invaded  the  domain  of  theory, 
in  the  department  of  what  ought  to  be.  He  has  opened 
up  three  questions  which  rest  wholly  on  definitions,  — 
one's  ideas,  namely,  of  a  good  sermon,  a  decent  behavior, 
and  a  pretty  hat.  Indeed  the  trouble  lies  deeper  still. 
Before  one  could  come  to  a  rational  conclusion  on  these 
specific  opinions,  it  would  be  necessary  to  answer  the 
fundamental  questions  on  which  they  rest.  These  are: 
What  is  true  rehgion?  What  is  the  ideal  of  manly  con- 
duct? and  What  is  beauty?  —  three  problems  not  likely 
to  be  solved  within  the  limits  of  a  drive  from  church. 
Yet,  such  as  these  problems  are,  they  illustrate  sufficiently 
well  the  type  of  theories  that  concern  what  ought  to  be. 
Their  theoretical  character  is  seen  this  time,  not  in  the 
attempt  to  tell  facts  what  they  must  do,  but  in  the  disposi- 


134    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

tion  to  show  them  what  they  ought  to  be  on  pain  of  falling 
below  the  ideal. 

The  whole  distinction  between  facts  and  theories  can 
perhaps  best  be  presented,  by  way  of  a  final  word,  in  the 
following  variety  of  what  is  later  called  the  "proof  of 
envy."  It  has  been  familiar  to  most  of  us,  in  moments 
of  discouragement,  throughout  our  school  days. 

"The  Ufe  of  the  student  is  a  hard  one,  for  he  is  forever 
under  somebody's  thumb,  forever  at  tasks  which  are  set 
by  another,  and  in  which  often  he  fails  entirely  to  see 
anything  of  interest  or  of  value." 

This,  as  the  presence  of  the  word  "for"  reveals,  is  a 
piece  of  reasoning;  and  it  is  based,  therefore,  on  some  sort 
of  general  statement  connecting  freedom  and  happiness,  — 
the  lack  of  freedom  brings  unhappiness.  If  we  question 
the  speaker  as  to  his  grounds  for  believing  this  funda- 
mental statement,  he  may  say,  "People  who  lack  free- 
dom are  seen  to  be  unhappy.  History  shows  this,  my  own 
life  shows  it,  and  the  belief  is  supported  by  what  I  have 
observed  of  the  lives  of  other  men." 

In  such  a  case  the  statement  relates  wholly  to  facts. 
It  makes  no  attempt  to  explain  the  thing  logically,  or  to 
show  why  it  must  be  true,  but  is  content  with  asserting 
that  it  is.  On  the  other  hand  the  speaker  when  questioned 
might  give  a  wholly  different  reply. 

"  Anyone  can  see  that  a  man  who  lacks  freedom  cannot  be 
happy.  Freedom  means  the  ability  to  do  as  one  pleases,  and 
to  do  as  one  pleases  is  part  of  the  definition  of  happiness." 

Here  is  a  matter  of  pure  theory.  It  is,  in  the  first  place, 
based  on  the  relation  between  two  ideas;  the  connection 
behind  it  is  a  rational  connection  of  thought.  Moreover, 
it  undertakes  to  dictate  to  facts  as  to  what  they  must  do. 
This  it  effects  not,  of  course,  through  a  power  over  the 
facts,  but  through  the  ability  to  refuse  them  admission 


STATEMENTS   OF   FACT   AND   OF  THEORY     135 

under  the  terms  employed.  If  the  man  who  asserts  that 
he  who  lacks  freedom  must  be  unhappy  is  confronted  with 
any  troublesome  instances  to  the  contrary,  he  can  always 
rule  them  out.  "The  lack  of  freedom,"  he  can  say,  "is 
only  apparent,  not  real."  Or  again,  "This  is  not  true 
happiness,  though  outwardly  it  appears  so."  He  is  on 
safe  ground  in  these  assertions,  for  his  words  have  behind 
them  the  authority  of  the  mind  over  its  own  ideas. 

Here,  then,  are  two  fundamentally  different  explanations 
of  why  the  speaker  believes  that  there  is  a  connection 
between  freedom  and  happiness.  The  former  of  these, 
that  which  concerns  what  has  been  observed,  is  of  the 
nature  of  what  scientists  call  a  "law,"  a  generalization 
about  facts.  The  latter,  the  assertion  of  a  connection 
between  ideas,  may  be  called  a  rule  or  principle,  and 
belongs  wholly  in  the  world  of  theories. 

EXERCISES 

^  The  student  should  review  the  remarks  in  Part  I, 
Chapter  I,  about  the  difference  between  a  grammatical 
subject  and  a  logical  subject,  and  then  attempt  to  deter- 
mine what  is  the  logical  subject,  the  real  matter  under 
discussion,  in  each  of  the  following  assertions. 

(a)  All  art  is  an  imitation  of  nature. 
(6)  A  great  fortune  is  a  great  slavery. 

(c)  Riches  for  the  most  part  are  hurtful  to  them  that  possess 
them. 

(d)  We  learn  not  at  school,  but  in  life. 

(e)  To  regulate  household  affairs  and  attend  to  her  children 
is  the  highest  recommendation  of  woman. 

(/)  No  expectation  can  allure  a  good  man  to  commit  evil. 

2.  Do  the  assertions  in  the  list  above  relate  to  fact  or 
to  theory?  Let  your  answer  be  determined  by  the  sort 
of  reasoning  you  would  use  in  attempting  to  prove  them. 


136    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

3.  Are  the  following  to  be  regarded  as  statements  of  fact 
or  statements  of  theory? 

(a)  It  is  not  strange  that  there  are  some  differences  between 
the  language  of  the  people  of  England  and  that  of  the  people  of 
the  United  States. 

(6)  Inflectional  languages  are  those  which,  as  in  the  Latin, 
consist  largely  of  stems  which  change  the  termination  to  indi- 
cate case,  tense,  number,  etc. 

(c)  One  will  always  write  best  about  that  of  which  one  knows 
most. 

(cO  It  is  impossible  to  express  ideas  unless  one  has  ideas  to 
express. 

(e)  After  the  matter  has  been  gathered,  the  next  thought  must 
be  directed  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  expressed. 

(/)  The  natural  order  and  logical  sequence  in  a  sentence 
should  be  observed. 

ig)  The  great  difference  between  history  and  fiction  is  that 
the  events  recorded  in  history  are  true,  while  fiction  deals  with 
purely  imaginary  circumstances. 

(h)  By  the  growth  of  democracy  is  meant  the  admission  of  the 
people  to  a  larger  share  in  administering  the  affairs  of  the  country. 

(i)  There  are  repubhcs  in  fact  which  are  not  so  in  name,  and 
there  are  repubhcs  in  name  which  are  really  monarchies  or 
empires. 

{j)  Under  the  right  conditions,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the 
repubUcan  form  of  government  will  confer  upon  a  people  stabil- 
ity, good  order,  and  such  progress  as  no  other  form  of  govern- 
ment can  secure. 

4.  In  Part  I,  Chapter  III,  Exercise  2  (6),  which  are 
statements  of  fact  and  which  statements  of  theory? 

5.  In  Part  II,  Chapter  III,  review  Exercise  1. 

6.  In  Part  II,  Chapter  V,  Exercise  2  (6),  distinguish 
the  statements  of  fact  from  the  statements  of  theory. 


CHAPTER  II 
EVIDENCE:    TESTIMONY  AND  AUTHORITIES 

Statements  about  facts  cannot  be  verified  by  reason- 
ing processes.  The  objects  and  events  upon  which  these 
statements  depend  have  a  fashion  of  behaving  as  they 
please,  quite  independently  of  all  our  principles  of  thought. 
All  that  can  be  done,  then,  is  to  watch  them  and  faithfully 
record  whatever,  in  their  own  good  pleasure,  they  choose 
to  be.  The  result  of  such  observation  puts  us  in  possession 
of  what  we  call  evidence,  and  is  the  only  means  of  testing 
the  correctness  of  statements  about  facts.  Truth,  in  such 
statements,  is  a  conformity  between  the  meaning  of  words 
and  the  actual  conditions;  and  the  search  for  truth  is  the 
testing  of  the  value  of  evidence. 

Evidence  may  come  to  the  observer  directly,  through 
the  exercise  of  his  senses,  or  indirectly,  through  the  testi- 
mony of  others.  Direct  evidence,  and  the  difiiculty  of 
obtaining  it  in  a  trustworthy  form,  have  been  spoken  of 
already,  in  the  chapter  on  Observation.  As  to  the  evi- 
dence that  comes  indirectly,  through  the  statements  of 
other  people,  any  test  of  its  value  involves  the  attempt 
to  weigh  the  testimony.  Here  one  brings  into  practice 
first  the  legal  principle  that  the  person  on  trial  should  be 
given  the  benefit  of  the  doubt;  unless  a  motive  can  be 
shown  for  untruthfulness,  the  speaker  must  be  credited 
with  stating  the  truth.  In  a  general  study  of  testimony, 
however,  such  as  a  business  man  might  make  before 
crediting  a  report,  it  is  fair  to  go  much  further  than  would 


138    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

be  permissible  in  a  court  of  law.  One  may  justly  take  into 
consideration  all  the  conditions  under  which  the  words 
were  spoken  or  written.  Much  help  may  be  had,  too, 
from  a  study  of  human  nature,  with  all  its  whims  and 
foibles.  In  Exercise  3  of  this  chapter,  for  instance,  before 
deciding  to  credit  or  to  distrust  the  student's  theory  of 
his  character,  it  is  wise  to  consider  not  only  the  condi- 
tions under  which  "themes"  are  usually  written,  but  also 
the  probability,  judged  from  one's  general  knowledge  of 
character,  that  a  person  really  ''mulish"  would  be  in  a 
position  to  understand  his  own  temperament,  or  would  be 
disposed  to  boast  of  it.  Even  when  exact  statements  are 
attainable,  vanity  sometimes  leads  the  mind  to  despise 
them.  Men  have  been  taught  to  speak,  and  especially 
to  write,  for  effect,  rather  than  with  an  eye  to  truth. 
They  feel  that  guarded  statements  are  undramatic. 
They  fear  to  put  the  audience  to  sleep,  or  to  appear  as 
men  of  few  ideas.  Working  in  this  spirit,  observers  prefer, 
in  lieu  of  specific  assertions,  loose  statements  of  preference. 
They  tell  you  that  a  face  was  "pleasant,"  when  they  can- 
not even  remember  the  color  of  the  eyes.  They  record 
that  a  neighborhood  is  "desirable,"  without  being  able  to 
describe  a  single  phase  of  the  social  life.  Thus  the  princi- 
ples of  human  nature  sometimes  conspire  to  damage  the 
value  of  testimony.  It  is  the  standing  assumption  that 
our  informants  are  telling  the  truth;  but,  as  we  all  know 
from  personal  experience,  the  assumption  becomes  less 
and  less  strong  in  proportion  as  conditions  are  found 
which  might  lead  the  speaker  to  believe  that  a  little  draw- 
ing of  the  long  bow  would  be  agreeable  to  others,  or 
benefit  himself,  or  even  set  him  forth  as  a  man  of  superior 
intelhgence. 

Fortunately  for  the  literary  and  scientific  worker,  there 
is  always  available  for  his  specialty  a  mass  of  tested  evi- 


EVIDENCE:   TESTIMONY  AND   AUTHORITIES     139 

dence  in  the  printed  books  and  articles  of  recognized 
authorities.  In  professional  subjects,  involving  an  ad- 
vanced course  of  school  training,  a  considerable  amount 
of  time  is  devoted  to  preparing  the  specialist  to  handle 
the  literature  of  his  topic.  Outside  one's  specialty,  also, 
there  are  periodicals  and  reference  books  of  general  in- 
formation. By  the  intelligent  use  of  these,  it  is  possible 
to  settle  many  small  questions  absolutely,  and  to  get  a 
comprehensive  view  of  many  other  matters  met  in  current 
discussion.  Such  books  range  from  the  cyclopaedia  down 
through  all  sorts  of  special  manuals  to  the  dictionary. 
Another  kind  of  publication  provides  abstracts  or  titles  of 
all  important  articles  appearing  in  the  magazines  and  re- 
views. The  value  of  the  testimony  offered  is  to  be  judged 
by  what  is  known  of  the  writer,  or,  failing  that,  the  pub- 
lisher, the  purpose  of  the  book,  and  the  date  of  publication. 
The  second  consideration  in  judging  the  value  of  testi- 
mony is  the  probability  of  the  statements  themselves. 
This  each  of  us  must  determine  for  himself,  reasoning  from 
the  analogy  of  his  own  experience.  As  a  rule  a  thing 
which  has  never  been  experienced  is  likely,  at  least  to 
unimaginative  minds,  to  prove  inconceivable;  and  prob- 
ability may  be  sufficiently  well  described  as  resemblance 
to  what  is  already  known.  In  the  exercise  already  referred 
to,  for  instance,  the  student's  story  of  his  irritation  at 
"Yale  hats  and  Yale  cravats"  may  strike  the  enthusiast 
as  absurd,  but  it  is  likely  to  seem  convincing  enough  to 
one  who  has  himself  rebelled  at  the  expansive  manners 
of  a  certain  sort  among  college  students.  So  it  happens 
that  lack  of  knowledge  of  life  breeds  suspicion  and  shuts 
out  as  improbable  a  lot  of  testimony  which  might  open 
up  new  worlds  of  fact.  As  one  gains  in  experience  one 
becomes,  not  perhaps  quicker  to  believe,  but  at  least 
slower  to  reject  the  statements  of  others. 


140    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

Again  the  value  of  testimony  may  be  judged  through 
what  can  be  known,  on  the  face  of  the  matter,  of  the 
difficulty  or  ease  of  getting  at  the  facts.  Experiences 
are  more  or  less  difficult  to  obtain,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  fact  to  be  tested.  Often  it  is  necessary  to  read 
many  books,  to  interview  almost  inaccessible  people,  or 
to  grope  for  days  in  a  foggy  memory,  merely  to  be  in  a 
position  to  write  two  or  three  sentences;  and  even  then 
it  must  be  a  lucky  or  a  bold  man  who  can  avoid  the  word 
"perhaps."  Statements  which  relate  to  one  time  and 
place,  when  verifiable  at  all,  present  the  simplest  case. 
If  Charles  had  oatmeal  for  his  breakfast,  the  fact  may 
easily  be  established.  For  himself  there  is  the  evidence 
of  the  senses;  for  others,  the  option  of  taking  his  word 
for  it,  or  obtaining  the  testimony  of  the  rest  of  the  family. 
Statements  which  relate  to  a  general  idea,  and  pretend  to 
tell  what  has  occurred  everywhere  or  always,  present  a 
much  more  difficult  problem.  Take  such  a  statement  as 
is  found  in  Exercise  1,  Part  II,  Chapter  III:  "In  these 
families  the  second  generation,  the  boys  and  young  men 
of  thirty  years  ago,  was  generally  unsuccessful."  If  one 
is  disposed  to  examine  closely  into  the  value  of  evidence, 
it  must  be  plain  at  once  that  here  is  an  assertion  extremely 
hard  to  verify.  Knowledge  of  the  facts  presupposes 
thirty  years  of  close  observation  of  not  less,  probably, 
than  a  hundred  famihes,  and,  toward  the  end  of  that 
period,  knowledge  by  correspondence  or  verbal  report  of 
events  in  distant  places.  In  simple  truth  no  casual  ac- 
quaintance with  a  neighborhood  will  yield  this  degree  of 
information,  but  only  the  systematized  effort  of  a  business 
agency.  Here  the  evidence  is  under  suspicion  because  of 
the  wide  range  of  facts  that  it  covers;  and  the  case  is  by 
no  means  exceptional.  Many  of  our  statements,  especially 
such  as  are  loosely  circulated  in  conversation,  have  at 


EVIDENCE:   TESTIMONY  AND   AUTHORITIES     141 

bottom  no  better  warrant  of  accuracy.  They  are  offered 
with  the  best  intentions,  and  for  lack  of  anything  better, 
to  break  the  silence.  In  a  world  where  the  exact  truth  is 
so  hard  to  come  by,  many  assertions  pass  muster  with  an 
"every  "  or  an  ''always"  which  in  reality  are  entitled  only 
to  ''in  most  cases"  or  "so  far  as  I  have  observed." 
Many  masquerade  as  true  to  facts  when  their  actual  veri- 
fication is  in  the  nature  of  the  case  impossible.  All  we 
ask  of  them  by  way  of  title  to  the  name  "fact"  is  that  in 
some  form  or  other  they  shall  theoretically  be  capable  of 
comparison  with  some  condition  in  the  actual  world. 

Thus  it  is  no  wonder  that  absolute  agreement  as  to 
statements  of  fact  is  usually  beyond  hope.  In  a  very 
few  cases,  carefully  guarded  by  mathematical  theory,  the 
results  of  different  observers  correspond  closely  and  show 
a  kind  of  relative  accuracy  sufficient  for  most  purposes. 
Of  absolute  accuracy  there  is  none.  We  can  never,  in 
the  case  of  matters  of  fact,  be  said  to  attain  to  that  sort 
of  certainty  which  in  matters  of  theory  characterizes 
proofs.^  We  see  things  with  the  senses  which  have  devel- 
oped in  us,  but  these  represent  by  no  means  the  limit 
of  development.  In  the  senses  of  smell  and  hearing,  at 
least,  many  animals  excel  us.  What  more  highly  devel- 
oped powers  might  reveal  we  cannot  even  imagine,  but 
at  least  we  know  that  every  improvement  in  instru- 
ments of  observation,  like  every  change  in  theory,  brings 
to  light  a  new  world  of  fact.  Moreover,  such  part  of  our 
knowledge  as  comes  from  the  testimony  of  others  must 
be  taken  for  what  it  is  worth,  with  all  the  chances  of  mis- 
representation. At  present,  then,  when  all  pains  have 
been  taken  in  observation  and  all  the  evidence  is  in, 
we  must  usually  content  ourselves  with  the  acknowledg- 
ment that  our  statements  of  fact  are  not  absolutely  exact, 
» See  Part  III,  Chapter  V. 


142     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

but  merely  an  approximation  from  our  present  point  of 
view. 

Under  these  conditions  the  test  of  accuracy  in  state- 
ments of  fact  becomes  wholly  a  social  one.  The  final 
question  is  not,  What  is  absolutely  exact?  but,  What 
would  be  the  average  conclusion  of  the  most  favorably 
situated  and  experienced  observers?  Such  a  court  of 
final  appeal  might  decide  incorrectly,  but,  provided  their 
decision  were  unanimous  and  no  one  presented  a  higher 
type  of  authority,  their  verdict  would,  from  the  human 
point  of  view,  be  accurate.  It  is  quite  possible  we  may 
all  be  wrong,  provided  we  are  all  wrong  in  the  same 
degree. 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  what  way  does  the  question  of  evidence  arise 
in  connection  with  Exercise  1,  Part  II,  Chapter  III? 

2.  Examine  the  pretended  statements  of  fact  in  the 
following  argument.  What  is  their  value?  Is  any  of 
them  sufiiciently  a  matter  of  common  experience  to  re- 
quire nothing  more  than  the  assertion? 

Some  people  think  that  the  daily  newspapers  intrude  too 
much  upon  the  personal  affairs  and  home  life  of  the  family. 
This  is  perhaps  partly  right  and  partly  wrong. 

In  the  first  place  I  think  that  people  should  discriminate 
between  the  respectable  papers  and  the  sensational  ones.  The 
reckless  papers  do  often  invade  the  department  of  private  affairs. 
But  these  papers  are  few  in  number  compared  with  the  respect- 
able papers. 

In  the  second  place  we  should  consider  carefully  what  is 
really  private  and  what  is  not.  If  a  person  lived  entirely  alone, 
all  his  affairs  would  be  private;  but  as  soon  as  another  person 
comes  and  lives  with  him  his  individual  freedom  decreases. 

The  authority  of  the  church  and  perhaps  of  the  state  is  dimin- 
ishing, but  the  daily  papers  search  into  and  reveal  the  devices 


EVIDENCE:   TESTIMONY  AND   AUTHORITIES     143 

which  evade  the  law;  thus  their  protection  far  outweighs  their 
evils. 

The  relation  of  journalism  to  the  home  has  been  completely 
changed  by  modern  conditions.  Fifty  years  ago  journahsm 
was  little  more  than  writing  political  pamphlets,  which  con- 
tained a  little  news.  But  the  newspaper  of  to-day  is  entirely 
different.  We  are  dependent  upon  it  in  a  great  many  ways. 
The  merchant  must  have  it  for  the  general  news  and  for  the 
news  which  relates  to  his  business.  The  housewife  must  have 
it  for  the  reports  of  the  things  which  interest  her.  In  fact, 
everyone  should  read  the  daily  paper  if  he  wishes  to  keep  in 
touch  with  the  world. 

The  newspaper  has  become  the  power  which  controls  our 
standards  of  living,  education,  fashion,  and  almost  everything. 
The  best  papers  have  broadened  themselves  to  the  modern 
requirements  and  offer  good  incentives  to  broader  knowledge. 

3.  In  the  following  student  composition  test  the  chances 
that  the  student  is  giving  a  substantially  correct  account 
of  his  character  and  past  life.  The  test  rests  on  the  answer 
to  two  questions:  (a)  Are  the  statements  consistent  and 
convincing,  and  (6)  Is  there  probable  motive  for  not  tell- 
ing the  truth? 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that,  ever  since  my  childhood,  I  had  done 
all  the  tinkering  for  the  house  and  that  I  was  never  so  happy 
as  when  using  tools,  my  mother  was  determined  to  make  a 
minister  of  me.  To  please  her  I  went  so  far,  during  one  of  my 
terms  at  the  high  school,  as  to  take  up  Latin;  but  I  could  never 
get  a  word  of  it  through  my  head.  After  that  term  my  mother 
gave  up  her  pet  notion  and  began  to  come  round  to  my  father's 
idea  of  sending  me  to  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at  Yale. 
Thus  they  debated  what  to  do  with  me.  I  shut  my  mouth 
hard  and  let  them  debate;  I  had  always  been  what  they  call  a 
"mulish  child." 

Naturally  as  I  knew  my  father  had  planned  to  send  me  to 
Sheffield,  the  more  I  heard  of  the  place  the  more  I  was  deter- 


144    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

mined  not  to  like  it.  Just  at  this  time  there  happened  unfor- 
tunately to  be  in  town  two  of  my  acquaintances  who  were 
attending  school  at  Sheffield.  They  could  talk  of  nothing  but 
New  Haven  and  Yale.  They  had  Yale  hats  and  Yale  cravats 
and  Yale  calls  to  whistle  under  each  other's  windows  at  night. 
I  thought  them  too  much  incUned  to  put  on  airs  before  the  rest 
of  us  who  had  never  been  to  college,  and  was  more  than  ever 
disgusted  at  the  thought  of  Sheffield.  This  feehng  became  so 
strong  that  I  even  thought  of  trying  to  make  up  my  Latin 
and  enter  college.  A  disagreeable  old  uncle  of  mine,  however, 
urged  a  college  course  upon  me  strongly,  and  even  offered  to 
pay  my  way  through  Chicago  University.  I  hated  the  old 
gentleman  so  heartily  that  I  would  have  given  up  my  turning- 
lathe  if  he  had  approved  of  my  using  it.  His  offer  cured  the 
college  fever. 

When  I  was  thus  undecided  what  I  wanted,  I  met  a  gradu- 
ate of College,  who  brought  me  to  a  decision.    He  was 

the  most  discouraging  man  I  ever  talked  to.  He  spoke  highly 
of  the  scientific  training  here,  to  be  sure,  but  said  the  entrance 
examinations  were  imconamonly  hard.  He  doubted  whether  a 
country  boy,  with  a  patchwork  schooling  such  as  mine  prob- 
ably was,  could  ever  pass.  I  saw  in  this  remark  a  chance  to 
defeat  my  father's  plans  and  to  show  the  graduate  what  a 
country  boy  can  do.  I  began  trying  to  fit  myself  for  the 
examinations. 

4.  What  grounds  are  there  for  accepting  at  their  face 
value  the  statements  made  by  the  author  of  the  letter  in 
Exercise  IC,  Part  III,  Chapter  IV? 

5.  Test  the  value  as  evidence  of  your  own  opinions 
on  the  state  of  school  spirit  in  your  school.  Consider 
especially  the  following  points :  your  acquaintance  among 
graduates,  members  of  the  instructing  staff,  upper  class- 
men, members  of  your  own  class;  your  place  of  residence; 
the  persons  you  meet  and  talk  with  during  lunch  hours 
and  intermissions;   your  knowledge  of  school  traditions; 


EVIDENCE:   TESTIMONY  AND  AUTHORITIES     145 

your  participation  in  school  affairs,  athletic,  social,  and 
literary;  your  knowledge  of  other  institutions  of  a  similar 
sort. 

6.  Undertake  as  much  of  the  reference  work  in  Appen- 
dix B  as  time  and  the  resources  of  the  school  library 
permit. 


CHAPTER  III 
ARGUMENTS    FROM  RESEMBLANCE 

There  are  many  statements  of  fact  which  cannot  be 
touched  by  evidence  or  observation.  They  may  concern 
matters  too  deeply  imbedded  in  the  past  or  relate  to 
mental  phenomena  or  to  possibilities  of  the  future.  Yet 
among  such  are  the  most  vital  questions  of  the  practical 
life.  Will  the  market  go  higher  or  continue  to  sink? 
In  the  present  dispute  am  I  more  likely  to  succeed  by 
persuasion  or  by  a  show  of  force?  Since  immediate 
action  is  demanded,  I  require  some  sort  of  probable  con- 
clusion on  which  to  base  it.  In  such  cases  there  is  no 
guide  save  a  knowledge  of  similar  things  in  the  past  and 
the  belief  that  things  similar  in  some  respects  will  tend 
to  be  similar  in  all. 

General  statements  concerning  the  behavior  or  the 
nature  of  facts  are  to  be  had  in  abundance.  We  make 
them  ourselves  out  of  experience;  we  find  them  everywhere 
in  print.  Indeed  one  of  the  most  debilitating  effects  of 
general  reading  is  due  to  the  common  occurrence  of  these 
sweeping  assertions.  Whether  gullibly  accepted  or  cyni- 
cally denied,  they  tend  to  form  unfortunate  habits  of 
mind.  Most  of  them  would  probably  not  stand  the  test 
of  comparison  with  actual  conditions;  many  are  based 
on  an  idea  but  ill  adapted  to  the  cases  under  it.  They 
may  be  the  old  saws  employed  by  the  fireside  weather- 
prophet,  the  "rules"  for  picking  out  a  good  horse  or  a 
faithful  employee,  or  a  summary  of  the  few  conspicuous 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   RESEMBLANCE  147 

instances  in  a  series.  The  most  trustworthy  and  dignified 
among  them  are  the  so-called  natural  laws.  These,  at 
least,  are  careful  compilations,  checked  by  the  evidence 
of  men  equipped  to  observe.  Ordinary  talk  and  reading, 
however,  furnishes  almost  no  instances  of  reasoning  based 
on  generalizations  so  worthy  of  respect  as  these. 

These  general  statements  from  which  we  draw  conclu- 
sions may,  when  their  meaning  is  studied,  be  divided 
into  those  which  relate  to  causes  and  those  which  relate 
to  qualities.  The  law  that  evil  living  weakens  a  man's 
power  of  application  indicates  a  connection  between  cause 
and  effect.  The  waste  of  energy  and  the  habit  of  pleasure 
lead  through  natural  connection  to  inability  to  concen- 
trate the  mind.  On  the  other  hand  the  common  assertion 
that  a  halo  round  the  moon  will  be  followed  by  stormy 
weather  points  to  a  connection  between  a  sign  and  a 
thing  signified.  The  halo  is  not  credited  with  an  influence 
in  producing  the  storm,  but  is  thought  of  merely  as  an 
earlier  effect  of  that  disturbance  which  will  later  result  in 
precipitation.  It  may  therefore  be  used  as  a  sign,  a  present 
and  outward  indication  of  something  which,  being  absent 
or  hidden,  cannot  be  as  yet  directly  observed.  The  first 
of  these  two  sorts  of  law,  the  connection  of  cause  and 
effect,  is  treated  in  the  following  chapter.  The  second, 
which  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  two  qualities  once 
found  together  will  always  be  found  together,  leads  to  the 
various  forms  of  reasoning  from  resemblance. 

Reasoning  from  resemblance  may  be  defined  as  a  use 
of  one's  notion  of  the  qualities  of  a  class  for  the  purpose 
of  judging  what  is  likely  to  be  true  in  a  new  but  similar 
case.  This  kind  of  reasoning  may  be  illustrated  with  the 
following  instance: 

Law :  Persons  with  small  cranial  capacity  are  likely  to  have 
a  limited  mental  development. 


148    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

Application :  Niccolo  da  Uzzano  has  a  small  skull. 
Conclusion:  Niccolo  has  in  all  probability  an  inferior  mind. 
(See  Exercise  3,  Part  II,  Chapter  II.) 

Stated  in  more  general  form,  the  argument  is  as  follows: 

In  most  instances  previously  observed,  cases  marked  X  have 
shown  the  quality  Y. 

The  present  instance  shows  the  mark  X. 

The  present  instance  will  in  all  probability  have  the  quahty  7. 

In  this  example,  then,  there  is  a  statement  of  what  is 
generally  true  of  a  class,  a  statement  that  the  present 
instance  appears  to  belong  to  the  class,  and  a  conclusion 
drawn  from  a  combination  of  these  two  facts.  Such  is 
reasoning  from  resemblance  in  its  simplest  form.  It 
is,  in  short,  an  attempt  to  pass  from  knowledge  of  most 
individuals  of  a  particular  kind  to  knowledge  of  a  special, 
new  instance,  which,  for  some  cause  or  other,  has  not  yet 
been  definitely  observed. 

A  second  form  of  reasoning  from  resemblance  is  that 
which  begins  with  a  particular  instance,  or  with  several, 
and  draws  a  conclusion  about  the  whole  class. 

The  present  instances  have  the  quality  Y. 

The  present  instances  show  the  mark  X. 

All  instances  which  show  the  mark  X  will  have  the  quality  Y, 

The  Rugby  game  has  been  adopted  in  California;  it 
would  probably  be  liked  in  colleges  generally.  Most  of 
the  men  recently  prominent  in  English  affairs  are  Irish, 
Scotch,  or  Welsh.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that 
the  English  mind  generally  is  inferior  to  that  of  its  neigh- 
bors. This  method  of  reasoning,  as  was  noted  in  an 
earlier  chapter,  is  that  by  which  general  ideas  grow  up  in 
the  mind.  In  this  way  strangers  travel  abroad,  or  visit 
Cape  Cod,  and  retiun  with  extravagant  notions  of  the 


ARGUMENTS  FROM   RESEMBLANCE         149 

manners,  dialect,  and  habits  of  dress  of  the  natives.  The 
force  of  illustrations  and  concrete  instances  in  developing 
an  idea  is  due  also  to  this  thought  relation.  Finally, 
scientists  employ  it  in  the  search  for  natural  laws;  and 
in  this  connection  it  has  received  the  special  title  of 
*  *  inductive  reasoning. ' ' 

By  still  another  variety  of  reasoning  from  resemblance, 
the  mind  begins  with  a  particular  instance,  passes  to  the 
general  law,  and  then  to  another  particular  instance 
similar  to  the  first. 

The  present  instance  has  the  quality  Y. 

The  present  instance  has  the  mark  X. 

Some  other  instance  which  shows  the  mark  X  will  probably 
have  the  quality  Y. 

(For,  all  instances  that  show  the  mark  X  may  be  assimied 
to  have  the  quality  Y.) 

In  the  literary  form  of  such  reasoning  it  is  common  to 
omit  all  mention  of  the  general  law.  If  it  has  been  well 
for  Columbia  to  abolish  football,  it  will  probably  be  well 
for  Harvard.  The  country  went  through  a  financial 
crisis  during  the  last  Democratic  administration,  and  so 
we  may  look  for  trouble  if  the  Democrats  should  win  in 
19 — .  Such  are  the  forms  commonly  taken  by  such 
reasoning.  This  process,  too,  is  one  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  in  thinking.  It  usually  passes  under  the  name 
of  "analogy." 

In  all  these  varieties  of  reasoning  the  weakest  spot  is 
likely  to  be  the  pretended  general  truth.  Since  it  is  a 
statement  about  fact,  it  rests  upon  observation  and  evi- 
dence, and  shares  all  the  fallibility  which  attaches  to  these. 
Have  all  the  important  cases  been  noticed?  Probably 
not.  When  an  observer  starts  with  some  general  con- 
ception in  mind,  he  naturally  picks  up  such  instances  as 


150    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

agree  with  his  idea  and  overlooks  the  rest.  The  rabid 
partisan  in  poUtics  can  tell  you  all  about  the  successes 
of  his  party;  of  its  failures  he  knows  nothing.  The 
melancholy  man  has  a  hundred  instances  to  prove  that 
the  world  is  going  wrong.  So  too  with  systems  of  weather 
prediction.  Whatever  saw  a  man  believes  in,  whether  it 
relates  to  groundworms  or  to  the  moon,  two  or  three  veri- 
fications in  a  lifetime  are  enough  to  make  him  certain  that 
his  predictions  have  always  come  true.  This  tendency, 
so  plainly  observable  in  laymen,  affects  in  a  measure, 
no  doubt,  even  trained  observers.  The  law  of  nature, 
once  suggested,  accumulates  evidence  in  its  own  favor 
and  makes  the  opposing  cases  harder  to  find.  On  account 
of  these  limitations,  our  generalizations  about  facts  ought 
not,  strictly  speaking,  to  present  themselves  as  statements 
of  invariable  truth,  but  only  with  the  reservation  that 
they  represent  an  impression  of  what  has  usually  held 
good  in  the  past. 

The  first  step  in  making  use  of  such  statements  to 
reason  from  resemblance  is  the  assertion  that  the  new 
conditions  are  in  all  essential  respects  like  the  old.  The 
present  instance,  because  it  shows  the  mark  of  X,  will  be 
like  the  other  instances  that  have  shown  the  mark  of  X; 
it  will  have  the  quality  Y.  Such  reasoning  would  be 
safe  only  if  you  had  defined  a  class  marked  X  in  such  a 
way  as  to  shut  out  all  cases  that  did  not  have  the  quality 
Y.  Then,  however,  you  would  be  dealing  with  an  idea; 
the  occurrence  of  an  opposing  instance  could  leave  you 
stranded  on  a  theory.  Outside  the  domain  of  ideas, 
close  similarity  is  accidental  rather  than  assured.  Nature 
in  its  wealth  of  conditions  never  exactly  repeats  itself. 
So  far  is  this  true  that  even  when  manufacturers  exert 
their  utmost  skill  to  produce  a  uniform  product,  each 
article  that  leaves  the  shop  has,  when  closely  considered, 


ARGUMENTS  FROM   RESEMBLANCE  151 

a  distinct  individuality.  Thus  men  who  have  studied 
engines  tell  us  that  no  two  of  the  same  make  and  dimen- 
sions are  aUke.  Each  has  its  whims  of  action  and  must 
be  coaxed  into  doing  its  best.  In  connection  with  natural 
objects  or  persons  the  same  truth  is  far  more  evident. 
One  who  reasons  that  the  world  will  continue  to  give  him 
a  living  merely  because  it  has  always  done  so,  or  that  it  is 
safe  to  board  moving  trains  because  he  has  never  yet  been 
injured,  is  likely  some  day  to  find,  hidden  beneath  ap- 
parent similarity,  an  uncomfortable  and  totally  unfamiliar 
result.  To  be  sure  that  any  present  instance,  however 
simple,  is  in  essentials  like  something  already  observed  is 
a  task  requiring  unusual  knowledge  and  powers  of  observa- 
tion; and  it  is  the  lack  of  this  certainty  which,  more  than 
any  other  factor,  helps  to  reduce  our  reasoning  from 
resemblance  to  the  level  of  probabiUty. 

Sometimes  even  the  pretence  of  finding  a  close  similarity 
between  the  new  case  and  those  previously  observed  is 
dropped,  and  we  take  a  rough  resemblance  for  what  it  is 
worth.  This  happens  when,  for  instance,  we  attempt  to 
interpret  other  people's  purposes  or  states  of  mind  by 
their  actions.  So-and-so  smiles;  when  I  smile  I  am 
pleased,  and  he  is  more  or  less  the  same  sort  of  creature 
as  I  am:  he  is  probably  pleased.  A  is  about  to  invest 
his  money  in  unlisted  stocks;  if  I  bought  that  particular 
stock,  it  would  be  because  I  was  out  of  my  head:  A  is 
probably  crazy.  To  reasoning  of  this  stamp  we  owe 
most  of  our  conclusions  as  to  the  inner  life  of  others. 
We  hear  words  and  observe  signs  which,  if  they  issued 
from  us,  would  indicate  certain  ideas,  feelings,  and  pur- 
poses. We  conclude,  therefore,  that  there  are  similar 
mental  states  behind  the  same  expressions  in  others. 
Such  conclusions,  though  often  enough  wide  of  the  mark, 
are  on  the  whole  not  a  bad  guide  with  persons  of  our  own 


152    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

race,  particularly  if  in  character  and  habits  they  closely 
resemble  ourselves.  With  other  races,  and  even  more  with 
animals,  this  sort  of  reasoning  is  but  little  to  be  depended 
upon.  Yet  we  often  try  to  apply  it,  even  to  inanimate 
objects  and  to  our  notions  of  divinity. 

Our  conclusions  from  facts,  then,  unless  derived  from 
evidence,  come  to  us,  first,  as  the  result  of  a  reasoning 
process  based  on  signs.  We  compare  the  facts  with  what- 
ever in  our  past  experience  seems  most  to  resemble  them, 
and  conclude  that,  as  they  are  alike  in  one  respect,  they 
will  be  alike  in  all.  This  method  of  reasoning,  however, 
can  be  safely  applied  only  within  narrow  limits.  Even 
in  nature  it  is  hard  to  find  two  objects  or  two  events 
sufficiently  alike  to  warrant  the  inference  that  they  will 
resemble  one  another  in  qualities  not  directly  observable; 
and  between  lower  nature  and  man  so  great  a  gulf  is 
fixed  that  almost  no  inference  can  hope  to  bridge  it. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Most  of  the  following  general  statements  of  fact  are 
drawn  from  respectable  sources  in  recent  literature  and 
have  been  made  the  basis  of  serious  arguments.  They 
are  inserted  partly  to  call  the  student's  attention  to  the 
nature  of  what  passes  among  us  as  fact.  Any  of  them 
which  falls  within  the  range  of  the  reader's  knowledge 
should  be  tested  as  to  its  agreement  with  actual  conditions. 

(a)  The  efficiency  of  most  of  our  public  school  systems  is 
diminished  by  political  influence  of  some  sort. 

(6)  The  best  hterature  obeys  the  laws  of  paragraph  structure. 

(c)  It  is  better  for  a  young  man  beginning  on  a  salary  to 
rent  a  house  than  to  buy  on  a  mortgage. 

(d)  The  most  lasting  results  come  to  the  deepest  students, 
and  rarely  to  the  so-called  practical  man. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   RESEMBLANCE         153 

(e)  A  poor  student  at  college  is  as  likely  as  a  good  one  to  be 
a  success  in  professional  work. 

(/)  Precocious  children  are  likely  to  be  stupid  or  commonplace 
adults. 

{g)  It  is  almost  necessarily  true  that  membership  in  a  fra- 
ternity increases  the  expenses  of  college  hfe,  or  at  least  tends  to 
increase  them  unduly. 

(h)  A  man  will  tell  the  truth  about  himself  when  it  is  to  his 
advantage. 

(i)  If  you  see  the  dust  blowing  about  the  streets,  you  will 
find  that  stormy  weather  soon  follows. 

ij)  A  man  who  never  looks  you  in  the  eye  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

(k)  In  the  ordinary  undergraduate  scheme  of  morality  any 
faculty  rule  may  be  broken  and  the  punishment  evaded  under 
two  conditions:  First,  if  the  rule  lacks  adequate  enforcement, 
so  that  ''everybody  breaks  it";  and,  second,  if  the  rule  itself 
seems  essentially  unfair  and  unjust. ^ 

(I)  The  four  years  of  college  life  form  habits  from  which  the 
youth  rarely  breaks  away  in  later  years;  if  selfish  in  college,  he 
is  likely  to  be  selfish  through  hfe;  if  his  impulses  are  altruistic 
in  college,  he  will  have  a  deep  interest  in  others  ever  afterward; 
if  he  cheats  in  the  class-room,  he  paralyzes  his  conscience  and 
lays  the  foundation  of  cheating  in  business;  if  he  is  good  only 
when  under  the  watchful  eye  of  a  proctor,  he  is  not  hkely  to 
make  a  safe  clerk  with  whom  to  intrust  another's  business;  if 
he  bets  in  the  football  game,  he  has  laid  the  foundation  for 
gambUng  anywhere  and  everywhere.^ 

(m)  It  is  even  more  essential  that  a  student  shall  have  done 
hard  work  before  coming  to  college,  than  that  he  shall  do  hard 
work  while  in  college.  The  previously  trained  mind  can  get 
a  great  deal  out  of  college  with  comparatively  httle  work.  The 
mind  that  has  not  been  previously  well  trained  can  get  very 

^  Meiklejohn,  "  The  Evils  of  College  Athletics."  From  Harper's 
Weekly,  47:1751.  Copyright,  1905,  by  Harper  &  Brothers.  By 
permission  of  Harper  &  Brothers. 

2  Fordyce,  "  College  Ethics."  The  Educational  Review,  37:  494. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


154    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

little  out  of  college  even  by  hard  work.  This  may  be  a  stumbling- 
block  to  the  school  man,  and  foolishness  to  the  university  man; 
but  the  college  man  knows  that  in  spite  of  these  criticisms  from 
below  and  from  above  an  amount  of  leisure  can  well  be  afforded 
in  college  which  would  be  fatal  in  either  academy  or  univer- 
sity. In  order  to  be  profitable,  however,  it  must  be  the  lei- 
sure of  a  mind  previously  subjected  to  prolonged  and  thorough 
disciphne.* 

(/^)  Take,  for  instance,  that  part  of  college  life  into  which 
the  average  boy  throws  himself  with  most  enthusiasm,  —  ath- 
letic sport,  —  and  see  how  far  our  students  have  fallen  below 
the  ideal  of  honesty,  how  far  they  still  remain  from  a  clear  sense 
of  proportion.  I  recognize  the  place  of  strategy  in  athletics; 
and  I  by  no  means  agree  with  the  gentleman  who  stigmatized 
a  college  catcher  as  "up  to  all  the  professional  tricks"  because 
"he  made  a  feint  of  throwing  a  ball  in  one  direction  and  then 
threw  it  in  another,"  yet  the  necessity  of  trusting  a  game  to  what 
the  umpire  sees  is  deplorable.  A  whole-souled  and  straight- 
forward young  athlete  told  me  once,  ^vith  smiling  good  humor, 
that  a  football  player  in  his  own  college  (who  had  everybody's 
respect)  owed  his  success  in  the  game  to  a  knack  of  holding  his 
opponent  in  such  a  manner  as  made  liis  opponent  seem  to  hold 
him.  Few  college  catchers,  I  suspect,  systematically  resist  the 
temptation  of  pulling  down  a  "ball"  to  make  it  look  like  a 
"strike";  and  many  cultivate  skill  in  this  sleight  of  hand  as 
a  cardinal  point  in  the  game.  Even  players  who  trip  others, 
though  in  public  they  may  be  hissed  and  in  private  talked 
about  as  "muckers,"  are  likely  to  remain  in  the  team,  and  in 
some  colleges  may  become  captains  (whereas  a  freshman  who 
breaks  training  by  smoking  a  single  cigarette  may  be  *'  queered" 
for  his  whole  college  course).  Many  ball  players  use  their 
tongues  to  confound  or  excite  their  adversaries;  and  whole 
armies  of  students,  supported  by  a  well  meaning  college  press, 
make  a  business  of  "  rattUng  "  a  rival  team  by  what  ought  to 
be  an  inspiration  and  not  a  weapon,  defensive  or  offensive  — 

iHyde,  "The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Re- 
printed by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


ARGUMENTS  FROM   RESEMBLANCE  155 

organized  cheering.  The  youth  who  plays  a  clean  game  is 
admired,  but  not  always  followed;  and  the  doctrine  of  Mr. 
Henry  L.  Higginson  and  Mr.  R.  C.  Lehmann,  that  a  clean  game 
comes  first  and  winning  comes  second,  though  it  strikes  under- 
graduates as  faultless  in  theory  and  as  endearing  in  the  men 
who  preach  it,  is  not  always  suffered,  in  a  hard  game,  to  in- 
terfere with  ''practical  baseball"  or  "practical  football,"  — 
expressions  used  among  undergraduates  much  as  "practical 
politics"  is  used  among  men  of  the  world.i 

2.  Compare  the  following  selection  with  the  outline 
which  accompanies  it  and  see  whether  it  appears  to  you 
that  the  outline  fairly  represents  the  substance.  Which 
of  the  arguments  are  based  on  resemblance? 

The  party  leader  of  the  Democratic  minority,  being  as  a 
rule  uneducated,  is  unable  to  understand  the  principles  which 
underhe  his  national  platform.  This  is  particularly  liable  to 
be  the  case  because  the  party  out  of  power  will  naturally  form 
its  principles  in  opposition  to  the  practical  measures  of  the 
government  and  thus  base  them  on  theory,  speculatively  cor- 
rect, and  dear  to  the  student  in  politics,  but  abhorred  by  the 
practical  man.  Thus  in  years  of  reaction,  when  the  Demo- 
cratic party  comes,  as  it  were  by  accident,  into  power,  it  is  unable 
to  live  up  to  its  promises.  Most  of  its  leaders  know  little 
about  the  principles  which  brought  them  the  independent  vote, 
and  care  less. 

The  Democratic  party  cannot  live  up  to  its  promises,  for 
The  Democratic  party  has  leaders  that  do  not  understand 

its  principles,  for 
The  Democratic  party  has  practical  politicians  as  leaders, 

and 
Practical  pohticians  cannot  understand  the  principles,  for 
They  cannot  understand  theory,  and 
The  principles  of  the  Democratic  party  are  theory. 

^  Briggs,  "  School,  College  and  Character."    Reprinted  by  per- 
mission of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


156     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

3.  Study  the  following  instance  of  analogical  reasoning 
quoted  from  Darwin  by  Romanes,  ''Mental  Evolution  in 
Animals." 

One  of  these  [instances]  consisted  in  a  large  dog,  which, 
while  playing  with  a  stick,  accidentally  thrust  one  end  of  it 
against  his  palate,  when  "giving  a  yelp,  he  dropped  the  stick, 
rushed  to  a  distance  from  it,  and  betrayed  a  consternation  which 
was  particularly  laughable  in  so  ferocious-looking  a  creature. 
Only  after  cautious  approaches  and  much  hesitation  was  he 
induced  again  to  lay  hold  of  the  stick.  This  behavior  showed 
very  clearly  the  fact  that  the  stick,  while  displaying  none  but 
the  properties  he  was  familiar  with,  was  not  regarded  by  him  as 
an  active  agent;  but  that  when  it  suddenly  inflicted  a  pain  in  a 
way  never  before  experienced  from  an  inanimate  object,  he  was 
led  for  a  moment  to  class  it  vsith  animate  objects,  and  to  regard 
it  as  capable  of  again  doing  him  injury." 

4.  Pick  out  and  comment  upon  the  laws  which  underlie 
the  reasoning  in  the  following  attempts  to  discover 
through  resemblance  the  character  of  the  writer  of  the 
composition  in  Exercise  3,  Part  III,  Chapter  II. 

(a)  The  fellow  who  gave  as  a  reason  for  entering  college 
the  statement  that  he  had  been  a  "mulish  child"  appears  to 
have  drawn  on  his  imagination.  He  may  have  remembered  hear- 
ing, or  taking  part  in,  a  family  discussion  as  to  where  he  should 
go  to  college,  in  which  his  father  had  been  in  favor  of  Yale.  He 
may  have  opposed  this  suggestion,  as  it  is  natural  for  all  fellows 
to  wish  to  select  their  college.  Because  of  this  act  of  opposition 
and  a  few  other  occasions  on  which  he  had  been  rather  stubborn, 
he  considered  himself  a  mulish  child  and  prided  himself  in  it. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  few  children  are  eager  to  do  as  they  are  told, 
and  they  will  complain  bitterly  when  they  are  forced  to  do  what 
they  do  not  hke. 

His  tendency  to  exaggerate  is  pronounced,  and  he  is  inclined 
to  rash  statements.    For  instance,  his  statement  to  the  effect 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   RESEMBLANCE  157 

that  he  would  give  up  one  of  his  favored  possessions  if  a  certain 
relative  even  approved  of  it^  use;  another  remark  about  Yale 
being  a  poor  college  because  certain  Yale  men  did  not  meet  his 
narrow,  countrified  ideas.  I  do  not  mean  that  he  was  incorrect 
in  his  opinion  of  these  men  personally,  but  his  haste  to  jump 
at  conclusions  from  a  few  bare  facts  is  noticeable.  To  my  mind 
this  is  the  way  he  came  to  imagine  himseK  a  "muhsh  child," 
because  of  a  few  contrary  acts  he  had  done  during  his  early  life. 
Otherwise  there  is  nothing  extraordinary  about  him,  as  he 
appears  to  have  characteristics  common  to  all  young  fellows,  — 
such  as  ideas  of  their  own  importance  and  the  inabiUty  of  other 
people  successfully  to  cross  them  in  their  desires. 

(6)  A  man's  opinion  of  himself  is  often  likely  to  be  different 
from  other  people's  opinion  of  him.  lience,  when  we  find  him 
describing  himself  as  obstinate  or  ''bull-headed,"  we  are  in- 
cUned  to  doubt  him;  we  should  believe  him  more  readily  if  he 
were  talking  of  another.  Now  a  man  or  boy  whose  parents 
wish  to  send  him  to  college  either  has  very  indulgent  parents 
or  else  has  shown  himself  w^orthy  of  being  sent  to  college.  But, 
when  he  refuses  to  study  Latin,  and  gives  up  a  chance  of  assist- 
ance by  an  uncle,  the  second  reason  falls  through,  and  we  must 
admit  that  his  parents  have  treated  him  very  leniently,  to  say 
the  least.  And  when  a  person's  parents  are  indulgent,  what 
are  we  likely  to  find?  The  boy  grows  up,  always  having  his 
own  way,  doing  what  he  wants  to  do  and  not  doing  what  he  dis- 
likes; his  opinion  of  himself  becomes  better  and  better  and 
finally  he  says,  with  a  good  deal  of  satisfaction,  that  he  always 
had  a  muHsh  disposition. 

5.  With  the  hints  given  below,  attempt  a  discussion 
of  the  following  arguments.  Prolonged  discussion  of 
each  is  not  desirable;  the  exercise  is  intended  to  train 
for  flexibility  and  a  critical  habit  of  mind,  not  for  argu- 
mentation. It  will  be  noted  by  the  acute  that  from  other 
points  of  view  some  of  these  arguments  might  receive  a 
different  criticism  from  that  suggested  here.    Analysis 


15S    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

does  not  produce  facts,  but  merely  views  of  facts;  and 
the  most  that  can  be  claimed  for  any  particular  view  is 
serviceableness  in  the  light  of  a  particular  purpose. 

(a)  Nothing  else  can  so  get  hold  of  the  spirit  of  the  college 
as  the  physical  struggle  of  an  intercollegiate  game.  It  is  war; 
it  is  conflict — a  trial  of  skill,  of  strength,  of  endurance,  in  which 
the  chosen  champions  of  either  group  go  forth  to  battle  for  the 
glory  of  the  Alma  Mater.  What  our  young  men  glory  in  is 
war  —  the  war  of  muscle  and  wit,  the  fighting  of  chosen  athletes 
for  supremacy.  Nothing  else  can  so  appeal  to  the  imagination 
of  a  body  of  young  Americans.^ 

(What  is  the  general  statement  on  which  the  argument 
rests?) 

(6)  Of  course,  the  ideal  condition  would  be  to  have  the  col- 
lege world  an  absolute  unit,  knowing  notliing  of  cliques  or  fac- 
tions or  divisions  of  any  sort,  recognizing  community  of  interest 
in  all  things,  each  sharing  in  common  prosperity  because  con- 
tributing to  it,  each  solicitous  as  to  the  welfare  of  the  other, 
each  member  of  this  democratic  community  a  direct  and  posi- 
tive blessing  to  each  other  member.  But  it  happens  that  the 
world  is  all  and  quite  otherwise;  Christian  nations  contend  with 
pagan  and  with  each  other  as  well;  there  is  strife  of  creeds  in 
the  churches,  and  of  parties  in  the  political  world;  class  makes 
war  upon  class  in  social  life,  and  distinctions  of  rank  or  wealth 
or  association  are  every\vhere  manifest  —  and  the  college  is  in 
the  world  and  of  the  world.  It  is  no  indolent  optimism,  there- 
fore, which  as  to  your  final  decision  bids  you  accept  the  frater- 
nity, .  .  .  and  make  the  best  of  it.^ 

(How  far  does  the  resemblance  on  which  this  argument  rests 
seem  to  you  to  be  a  real  one?) 

(c)  We  see  parents  (possibly  we  are  parents)  who  bring  up 

»  Meiklejohn,  "  The  Evils  of  College  Athletics."  From  Harper's 
Weekly,  49: 1751.  By  permission  of  Harper  &  Brothers.  Copy- 
right, 1905,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 

*  Canfield,  "  The  College  Student  and  his  Problems."  Reprinted 
by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Companj'. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   RESEMBLANCE  159 

children  "along  the  lines  of  least  resistance";  and  we  know  what 
the  children  are.  Is  it  illogical  to  infer  that  the  children  taught 
at  school  ''along  the  lines  of  least  resistance"  are  intellectually- 
spoiled  children,  flabby  of  mind  and  will?  For  any  responsible 
work  we  want  men  of  character,  —  not  men  who  from  child- 
hood up  have  been  personally  conducted  and  have  had  their 
education  warped  to  the  indolence  of  their  minds. ^ 

(In  what  ways  is  the  case  of  the  spoiled  child  unlike  that  of 
the  person  educated  along  the  hnes  of  least  resistance?) 

(d)  "The  practice  of  assisting  young  men  through  college 
in  order  that  they  may  strengthen  the  athletic  teams  is  degrad- 
ing to  amateur  sport."  This  declaration,  I  repeat,  is  all-impor- 
tant; but  it  needs  explanation  to  the  perspective  matriculate. 
It  does  not  commend  itseK  to  his  sense  of  fairness  or  of  con- 
sistency. He  is  more  likely  to  see  in  the  offence  inhibited,  so 
far  as  it  regards  himself,  not  a  malum  in  se  but  only  a  malum 
prohibitum.  He  knows  that  the  practice  of  assisting  worthy 
young  men  through  college  that  they  may  strengthen  some 
musical  organization,  or  act  as  typesetters  in  the  office  of  the  col- 
lege paper,  is  perfectly  legitimate.  "Why  may  not  I,"  he  asks, 
"pay  in  part  for  my  education  by  my  physical  prowess,  if  my 
brother  pays  in  part  for  his  education  by  his  musical  talent?" 
The  question  is  a  natural  one  and  should  be  answered  before  it 

"is  asked.    Left  unanswered,  it  tempts  the  student  to  evasion 
and  duplicity.2 

(Is  the  analogy  as  weak  as  the  writer  appears  to  believe? 
If  so,  why?) 

(e)  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  democratic  spirit  in  our  col- 
leges is  subject  to  more  dangers  to-day  than  it  was  fifty  years 
ago.  The  old  graduate  is  right  in  thinking  that  it  is  easier  to 
keep  up  the  democratic  spirit  where  everybody  is  doing  the  same 
thing  and  where  nobody  has  much  money.  But  the  old  gradu- 
ate is  wrong  in  thinking  that  we  can  legislate  ourselves  back  to 

1  Briggs,  "  School,  College  and  Character."  Reprinted  by  per- 
miesion  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

2  Smith,  "  Honor  in  Student  Life."  The  Educational  Review, 
30:390.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


160    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

this  condition  when  the  world  outside  has  passed  beyond  it;  or 
that  men  trained  in  such  a  college  as  he  remembers  would  be 
able,  after  they  graduated,  to  meet  the  demands  and  the  temp- 
tations of  the  present  age.  Lycurgus  made  Sparta  into  an 
old-fashioned  college,  with  no  electives  and  no  money.  How 
miserably  the  Spartans  failed  when  they  were  called  upon  to  do 
anything  which  made  for  human  progress  is  a  matter  of  history. 
Our  college  graduates  are  going  out  into  a  world  of  poUtical 
life  more  complex  than  anything  with  which  the  Lacedajmonians 
had  to  deal.  It  is  only  by  training  them  for  the  enjoyment  of 
freedom  and  the  use  of  wealth  in  their  school  days  that  we  shall 
enable  them  to  deal  with  the  greater  problems  which  freedom 
and  wealth  are  creating  throughout  the  country. ^ 

(There  are  two  arguments  from  resemblance  here,  but  the  more 
important  is  that  which  asserts  that  conditions  inside  the  school 
must  resemble  those  in  the  life  for  which  the  school  trains.) 

(/)  To  the  old  idea  of  culture  some  knowledge  of  history  was 
indispensable.  Now  history  is  a  representation  of  the  stream 
of  the  world,  or  of  some  little  portion  of  that  stream,  one  hun- 
dred, five  hundred,  two  thousand  years  ago.  Acquaintance  with 
some  part  of  the  present  stream  ought  to  be  more  formative  of 
character,  and  more  instructive  as  regards  external  nature  and 
the  nature  of  man,  than  any  partial  survey  of  the  stream  that 
was  flowing  centuries  ago.  We  have,  then,  through  the  present 
means  of  reporting  the  stream  of  the  world  from  day  to  day, 
material  for  culture  such  as  no  preceding  generation  of  men  has 
possessed.  The  cultivated  man  or  woman  must  use  the  means 
which  steam  and  electricity  have  provided  for  reporting  the 
play  of  physical  forces  and  of  human  volitions  which  make  the 
world  of  to-day;  for  the  world  of  to-day  suppUes  in  its  immense 
variety  a  picture  of  all  stages  of  human  progress,  from  the  Stone 
Age,  through  savagery,  barbarism,  and  medisevahsm,  to  what  we 
now  call  civihzation.  The  rising  generation  should  think  hard 
and  feel  keenly,  just  where  the  men  and  women  who  constitute 

*  Hadley,  "  Wealth  and  Democracy  in  American  Colleges." 
From  Harper's  Magazine.  By  permission  of  Harper  &  Brothers. 
Copyright,  1906,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   RESEMBLANCE         161 

the  actual  human  world  are  thinking  and  feeling  most  to-day. 
The  panorama  of  to-day's  events  is  not  an  accurate  or  complete 
picture,  for  history  will  supply  posterity  with  much  evidence 
which  is  hidden  from  the  eyes  of  contemporaries;  but  it  is  never- 
theless an  invaluable  and  a  new  means  of  developing  good  judg- 
ment, good  feeling,  and  the  passion  for  social  service,  or,  in 
other  words,  of  securing  cultivation.  But  someone  will  say  the 
stream  of  the  world  is  foul.  True  in  part.  The  stream  is,  what 
it  has  been,  a  mixture  of  foulness  and  purity,  of  meanness  and 
majesty;  but  it  has  nourished  individual  virtue  and  race  civiUza- 
tion.  Literature  and  history  are  a  similar  mixture,  and  yet  are 
the  traditional  means  of  culture.  Are  not  the  Greek  tragedies 
means  of  culture?  Yet  they  are  full  of  incest,  murder,  and 
human  sacrifices  to  lustful  and  revengeful  gods.^ 

(Study  the  analogy  in  the  latter  lines,  and  also  the  argument 
derived  from  likening  life  to  a  stream.) 

(g)  In  these  days  great  stress  is  laid  upon  what  is  called  Eng- 
lish, which  includes  grammar,  composition,  hterature,  etc.  A 
few  authors  are  chosen  and  children  pore  over  these,  commit 
some  pieces  to  memory,  and  analyze  them  until  they  are  tired 
out  and  disgusted.  I  speak  from  experience  and  wide  observa- 
tion. How  many  school  children  have  ever  heard  a  great  piece 
of  literature  properly  read?  I  was  fourteen  years  old  before 
any  such  thing  came  into  my  life,  and  I  had  unusual  advantages 
in  this  respect.  I  was  brought  up  on  Whittier  and  knew  many 
of  his  poems  by  heart  without  getting  the  least  inspiration  from 
them.  One  day  I  chanced  to  drop  into  a  class  in  rhetoric  in 
a  neighboring  college.  The  professor  recited  "Maud  MuUer" 
in  a  way  that  was  a  complete  revelation  to  me.  It  was  like 
opening  the  eyes  of  a  bUnd  man.  I  returned  to  the  study  of 
literature  with  a  zest  to  which  I  had  previously  been  a  stranger. 
I  thoroughly  believe  in  the  practice  of  making  children  commit 
to  memory  many  pieces  of  poetry  and  prose,  largely  as  a  mental 
discipUne  of  high  value,  but  also  as  an  aid  to  Hterary  apprecia- 
tion.   I  should  Uke  to  have  a  fine  reader  spend  his  time  in  going 

^  Eliot,  "  Present  College  Questions."  Reprinted  by  permission 
of  D.  Appleton  &  Company. 


162    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

from  school  to  school,  reciting  some  of  the  world's  great  litera- 
ture, with  appropriate  comments.  It  would  do  more  than  all 
the  text-books  in  existence.^ 

(An  example  of  reasoning  from  an  illustration.  Is  the  expe- 
rience narrated  a  fair  test  of  the  value  of  the  system  proposed?) 

{h)  What  men  were  those  who  held  the  attention  of  these 
New  England  communities:  Edwards,  Hopkins,  Bellamy, 
Emmons,  Emerson,  Parker,  Channing,  and  Orville  Dewey!  Do 
not  these  names  stand  for  the  most  original  contributions  to 
vigorous  thought  that  have  been  made  in  the  United  States? 
These  men  were  not  callous  to  the  finer  things  of  life.  On  the 
contrary,  they  were  men  of  kindly  natures  and  delicate  sensi- 
bihties.  They  were  endowed  with  not  a  little  of  the  reformer's 
zeal.  Especially  was  this  true  of  the  remorselessly  intellectual 
Hopkins,  of  the  discriminating  Channing,  and  of  the  critical 
Dewey,  who  all  were  leaders  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  in 
the  days  of  its  inauguration.  And  how  were  these  men  them- 
selves trained?  Not  by  any  soft  academic  methods,  much  lees 
by  any  modem  system  of  cramming.  In  a  memoir  of  Hopkins 
that  is  included  in  the  collected  edition  of  his  writings,  there 
is  a  significant  account  of  the  Yale  curriculum  of  his  day.  The 
study  of  languages  was  completed  in  the  freshman  year,  and 
exercises  in  logic  were  begun.  During  the  second  year,  the  first 
four  mornings  of  every  week  were  given  to  ethics  and  meta- 
physics. The  third  year  was  almost  wholly  devoted  to  physics, 
or  natural  science,  and  the  fourth  to  mathematics.  Here  was, 
indeed,  a  remorseless  system,  and  one  indifferent  enough  to  all 
super-refinements  of  sentiment.  I  should  not  wish  to  commend 
it;  but  at  least  it  did  not  make  scatter-brains,  or  dilettantes, 
or  dabbers.' 

(What  questions  must  be  satisfactorily  answered  before  this 
can  be  accepted  as  partial  proof  that  the  results  of  the  older 
education  were  favorable?) 

1  Rogers,  *'  What  is  Wrong  with  our  Public  Schools  ?  "  Lippin- 
cotVs  Magazine,  85:218.    Reprinted  by  permission. 

*Giddings,  "Democracy  and  Empire."  Reprinted  by  permis- 
sion of  The  Macmillan  Company. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ARGUMENTS  FROM  CAUSE 

When  a  general  statement  about  fact  asserts  a  con- 
nection between  two  events  such  that  the  first  is  believed 
to  be  necessary  in  producing  the  second,  it  is  said  to  deal 
with  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  Through  such  a 
relation  it  is  possible  again,  as  in  the  case  of  resemblance, 
to  reach  a  probable  conclusion  about  facts  inaccessible 
to  direct  knowledge.  One  may  start  with  either  cause  or 
effect  and  conclude  that,  since  the  one  is  present,  the  other 
probably  is.  The  force  of  such  reasoning  depends  upon 
two  things :  the  assurance  that  A  or  B  is  actually  present, 
and  the  belief  that  B  always  follows  A.  This  belief,  like 
any  other  matter  which  concerns  fact,  rests  first  upon 
observation;  but  behind  the  observation  is  a  theory  about 
the  constitution  of  the  world.  We  take  it  to  be  a  place 
in  which  the  sequences  of  events  remain  unchanged.  If 
B  is  once  certainly  observed  to  follow  A,  it  will  continue 
to  do  so,  other  things  being  equal,  till  the  end  of  time. 

In  any  attempt  at  reasoning  connected  with  cause  and 
effect,  common  sense  suggests  certain  characteristic  ques- 
tions. These  the  reasoner,  if  his  mood  be  at  all  serious, 
must  at  least  attempt  to  answer.  A  father,  for  instance, 
finds  that  his  son  is  falling  behind  in  his  work  and  likely 
to  be  dropped  from  college.  He  suspects  laziness,  but 
needs  to  bring  the  matter  to  a  test.  It  occurs  to  him 
that  laziness  is  a  likely  condition.  He  knows  that  his  son 
has  no  particular  aim  in  his  college  career  beyond  the 


164    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

somewhat  vague  one  of  cultivating  his  mind.  Under 
such  circumstances  young  men  sometimes  fall  into  idle 
habits.  Here,  then,  is  the  first  step  in  his  investigation: 
the  cause  is  a  probable  one;  it  may  be  deduced  from  the 
very  idea  of  the  conditions  surrounding  it.  Next  he  would 
naturally  ask  himself  whether  such  a  cause  is  sufficient  to 
produce  the  effect.  In  this  particular  instance,  however, 
he  is  spared  the  trouble;  all  experience  is  at  one  in  teach- 
ing that  laziness  is  the  death  of  scholarship.  A  more  im- 
portant question  in  the  present  case  is  whether  there  are 
other  conditions  that  may  account  for  the  failure.  Has 
the  boy  bad  habits?  Is  he  occupied  excessively  with 
athletics  or  society?  Is  his  heart  in  some  other  kind  of 
work,  so  that  he  lacks  interest  here?  Are  there  evidences 
of  a  lack  of  ability?  If  all  these  questions  are  answered 
in  the  negative,  if  the  student  appears  to  try  to  do  his 
work  and  keeps  regular  hours  of  study,  there  remains 
only  one  other  point  to  consider.  It  may  be  still  true 
that  the  suspected  cause  is  present,  but  hidden  by  other 
conditions.  The  appearance  of  studiousness  does  not 
always  imply  the  virtue  itself.  Long  hours  over  a  book 
are  not  necessarily  study,  and  a  man  may  take  no  part  in 
social  and  athletic  life  merely  because  he  is  too  lazy  to  do 
so.  Such  questions  beset  every  attempt  to  reason  about 
causes  and  results.  As  shown  in  the  illustration,  they 
occur  in  an  attempt  to  discover  a  hidden  cause;  but  they 
might  equally  well  arise  in  any  reasoning  on  the  basis  of 
a  general  statement  of  cause  and  result. 

Even  the  simple  illustration  just  referred  to  shows 
something  of  the  complex  conditions  among  which  the 
mind  works  in  dealing  with  sequences  of  events.  Every 
event  in  the  past  is  in  some  sense  a  cause  of  whatever 
action  we  are  studying.  Most  of  these  influences  are, 
however,  imperceptible,  and  the  mass  of  them  lies  outside 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   CAUSE  165 

the  range  of  the  observer's  interests.  As  a  practical  rule, 
therefore,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  every  event 
is  preceded  by  many  conditions  which  are  not,  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  cause  of  it.  In  the  five  years  following 
the  abolition  of  football  at  Columbia  the  registration 
there  caught  up  to  that  of  Harvard  and  passed  it;  but 
whether  the  change  in  athletic  policy  caused  the  increase 
will  be  always  a  debatable  point.  In  this  problem,  as  in 
many  others  connected  with  causation,  the  reasoner  must 
be  contented  with  a  suggestion  of  proof.  A  person 
deeply  concerned  over  such  matters  will  naturally  adhere 
to  one  conclusion  or  the  other  with  a  firm  belief;  but  his 
conviction  will  in  no  way  hinder  his  opponent  from  be- 
lieving the  opposite,  and  often  on  apparently  excellent 
grounds. 

This  complexity  in  the  study  of  causes  is  usually  some- 
what simplified  by  the  purpose  of  the  moment.  When  a 
man  asks,  ''What  is  the  cause  of  this  event?"  we  under- 
stand him  to  inquire  either  what  was  the  chief  influence 
in  its  production,  or  what  may  have  happened,  along  the 
line  of  his  interests,  that  played  a  part  in  bringing  it  about. 
Suppose  a  young  man,  in  the  ordinary  phrase,  ''goes 
wrong"  and  forges  his  father's  name  to  a  check.  Nothing 
in  the  whole  history  of  his  life,  perhaps,  was  without 
influence  on  the  catastrophe.  The  inherited  weakness  of 
the  son,  his  dread  of  his  father's  severity,  his  choice  of 
companions,  and  a  thousand  details,  down  to  the  most 
apparently  unimportant  incident,  all  had  their  part  to 
play.  The  choice  of  which  of  these  seems  essential  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  observer's  interests  and  knowl- 
edge. The  student  of  heredity  will  seek  for  the  cause  in 
the  character  of  the  boy's  father;  the  student  of  social 
laws,  in  his  companions;  and  the  student  of  ethics,  in  his 
principles.     In  such  a  problem  it  is  senseless  to  inquire 


166    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

merely  for  "the  cause."  The  observer  may  well  hope, 
however,  to  find  either  the  principal  cause  or  that  part 
of  the  cause  which  concerns  a  particular  research. 

So  much  concerns  mere  knowledge  of  the  facts  con- 
nected with  causal  sequences.  As  to  the  principle  under- 
lying this  sort  of  reasoning,  it  is  important  to  observe  that 
there  is  no  logical  necessity  behind  any  general  statement 
of  cause  and  effect.  No  generalization  of  this  kind,  even 
among  the  scientific  laws,  can  pretend  to  the  sort  of  cer- 
tainty that  is  found  in  mathematical  reasoning.  To 
begin  with,  it  merely  covers  relations  which  held  good  in 
the  past,  and  so  permits  only  a  probable  conclusion  as  to 
the  future.  If  I  have  failed  three  hundred  times  to  digest 
a  breakfast  of  oatmeal,  it  is  a  likely  thing  that  I  shall  fail 
on  the  three  hundred  and  first;  but,  though  it  be  the 
likeliest  thing  in  the  world,  it  is  no  certainty  till  tried. 
So  it  is  in  every  case :  we  have  no  assurance  that  the  result 
is  forced  to  follow  the  cause;  and,  from  certain  knowledge, 
can  assert  no  other  connection  save  that  of  the  order  of 
time.  If  on  rising  for  the  day  a  man  says  to  himself, 
"  My  life  is  a  failure.  This  day  is  to  add  merely  one  more 
to  a  long  series  of  defeats,"  he  may,  if  asked,  explain  his 
meaning  in  one  of  two  ways.  First,  if  not  well  acquainted 
with  the  philosophy  of  life,  he  may  give  reasons  for  his 
belief.  "I  shall  never  learn  self-control,"  we  imagine  him 
saying,  or  "  I  was  bom  with  so  many  inherited  tendencies 
towards  evil  that  I  shall  never  reform."  Granted  either 
of  these  statements,  the  hearer  will  be  able  to  see  a  logical 
connection  between  them  and  the  speaker's  main  position, 
and  will  understand  the  hopeless  frame  of  mind.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  for  the 
speaker  has  merely  given  reasons  for  a  statement  of  theory, 
an  estimate  of  his  life  based  on  an  ideal.  He  is  talking, 
not  of  what  is,  but  of  what  must  be  true.     On  the  other 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   CAUSE  167 

hand,  a  more  philosophic  man  in  the  same  position  will 
be  likely,  when  asked  why  he  thinks  his  life  hopeless,  to 
seek  for  the  causes  of  the  feeling.  "I  have  eaten  too 
rashly  overnight,"  he  will  say,  or  ^'I  have  slept  in  an 
insufficiently  ventilated  room."  There  is  no  rational 
connection  between  these  indiscretions  and  despondency. 
The  most  that  we  can  say  is  that  they  are  observed  to 
produce  melancholy,  —  nobody  quite  knows  why.  When 
they  go  before  in  time,  the  evil  frame  of  mind  generally 
follows;  and  the  generalization  which  connects  the  two 
is  merely  an  unexplained  statement  of  what  happens. 

Thus  the  type  of  explanation  which  refers  single  events 
to  general  laws  of  cause  and  effect  is  satisfactory  only  on 
a  superficial  view;  when  more  closely  considered  it  proves 
empty  of  reason.  All  our  general  statements  about  facts 
are  mere  answers  to  the  question.  How?  They  do  not 
explain,  but  merely  record.  This  is  true  even  of  those 
derived  through  careful  scientific  research.  The  names 
applied  to  some  of  the  better  known  laws  of  nature  have 
become  so  familiar  that  we  tend  to  mistake  them  for  real 
qualities  and  powers,  and  think  of  them  as  explaining 
the  inner  nature  of  events.  It  requires  no  great  study, 
however,  to  see  that  even  the  broadest  scientific  laws  are 
mere  records  of  totally  unexplained  traits  in  the  character 
of  nature.  When  Newton  summed  up  Kepler's  three 
laws  of  planetary  action  into  a  single  formula  and  gave  it 
a  name,  people  at  once  caught  up  the  idea  that  he  had 
made  an  analysis  of  "matter"  and  found  it  to  contain  a 
somewhat  called  ''gravitation."  The  popular  imagina- 
tion would  have  it  that  this  discovery  was  comparable  to 
the  process  of  dissecting  a  body  and  finding  arsenic  in  the 
stomach.  In  the  same  way  men  took,  and  in  a  measure 
still  take,  this  gravitation  existing  in  all  matter  to  be  the 
cause  of  motion,  just  as  the  arsenic  would  have  been  the 


168    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

cause  of  death.  The  moment  we  stop  to  think,  we  realize, 
of  course,  that  gravitation  is  only  a  convenient  name  for 
mathematical  statements  which  sum  up  the  movements 
of  the  planets.  It  no  more  explains  those  movements 
than  a  player's  score  explains  why  he  plays  a  bad  game  of 
golf.  So  it  is  with  all  the  laws  of  nature.  They  are 
voluble  enough  in  answer  to  the  question.  How?  but  on 
the  question.  Why?  completely  silent.  Hence  all  infer- 
ence about  the  future  based  on  general  rules  of  this  char- 
acter is  a  step  into  the  dark.  Probability  it  may  have 
in  any  degree;  but  it  must  always  lack  the  certainty  of 
mathematics. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Exercise  1,  Part  I,  Chapter  I,  is  an  example  of 
reasoning  from  cause  in  which  nearly  every  statement  of 
causal  sequence  is  doubtful.  Analyze  the  selection  again 
from  this  point  of  view  and  criticise  the  laws  of  cause  and 
result  which  imderlie  the  argument.  Note  especially  the 
following: 

(a)  The  fate  of  a  school  depends  upon  its  students  and 
alumni. 

(6)  Success  in  major  intercollegiate  sports  is  helpful  to  the 
reputation  of  a  school.  (What  must  be  summed  up  under 
"the  reputation  of  a  school"  if  the  idea  is  at  all  accurately 
employed?) 

(c)  Lack  of  interest  in  undergraduate  athletics  (or  in  the 
welfare  of  the  school?)  is  caused  by  selfishness. 

2.  In  the  following  statements  of  causation,  what  is  put 
forth  as  the  cause  and  what  as  the  result? 

(a)  If  a  man  is  naturally  of  a  formal  and  pedantic  turn  of 
mind,  the  life  of  a  teacher  wiU  tend  to  make  him  more  so. 

(6)  Half  the  weakness  and  folly  of  college  students  comes 
from  their  not  knowing  any  better.    If  they  knew  where  their 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   CAUSE  169 

professors  stood  on  moral  questions,  they  would  tend  to  stand 
with  them. 

(c)  The  lack  of  sound  individual  training  in  early  school 
years  is  shown  by  the  number  of  those  who  fail  and  become 
discouraged  in  the  lower  grades  and  leave  school  as  early  as 
the  law  permits. 

3.  Test  the  following  arguments  according  to  the 
suggestions  in  each  case. 

(a)  There  can  be  no  proper  working  of  school  spirit  without 
enthusiasm,  for  only  by  enthusiasm  can  the  individual  be  hfted 
out  of  his  personal  selfishness  and  made  to  care  for  the  good  of 
the  common  body.     (What  is  the  underlying  law  of  cause?) 

(6)  No  engineering  school  can  hope  to  inspire  the  love  of  its 
students  as  does  a  classical  college,  for  it  stands  toward  them  in 
a  relation  merely  commercial,  and  does  not  hold  up  the  same 
high  ideals  of  all-round  development  and  service.  (What  is  the 
underlying  law  of  cause?) 

(c)  It  is  as  an  amateur  that  one  enjoys  sailing  the  most. 
Most  of  us  are  then  in  our  youth,  care-free;  and  everything 
appears  only  from  its  brightest  side.  As  we  grow  older  our 
lives  become  more  and  more  complex,  and  our  pleasures  are 
thrust  into  the  background,  from  whence  they  shine  bright  as 
ever,  but  more  and  more  unattainable. 

(What  appear  to  be  the  writer's  notions  of  the  conditions 
which  make  enjoyment  possible?) 

(d)  It  is  significant  that  the  leaders  in  almost  every  avenue 
of  life  are  the  men  and  women  who  have  had  the  good  fortune 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  higher  education;  since  these  college- 
bred  men  hold  most  places  of  honor,  trust,  and  influence,  it  is 
imperative  that  the  seats  of  learning  should  be  dominated  by 
the  best  of  moral  forces;  we  should  adopt  the  maxim  of  the 
Prussians  that  "Whatever  you  would  have  appear  in  the  life  of 
a  nation  you  must  put  into  its  schools."  ^ 

^  Fordyce,  "  College  Ethics."  The  Educational  Review,  37:492. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


170    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

(Give  this  argument  in  outline  form,  so  as  to  show  the  state- 
ment about  schools,  the  statement  about  life,  and  the  connec- 
tion between  them.) 

(e)  Laziness  weakens  one  morally  as  well  as  mentally;  a 
loafer  is  incapable  of  ethical  growth  because  his  mental  fibre 
is  too  dormant  to  assimilate  moral  nourislmaent;  vigorous,  per- 
sistent work  of  any  sort  begets  concentration,  self-reliance, 
and  tenacity  of  purpose,  all  of  which  have  a  moral  import. 
The  principal  value  of  athletics  lies  in  the  fact  that  nothing  but 
the  student's  best  efforts  are  tolerated  on  the  field;  such  efforts 
have  a  reflex  psychic  influence  of  incalculable  worth.* 

(Trace  also  the  results  of  laziness  on  self-respect.) 

(/)  But  with  all  due  respect  to  what  kindergarten  devices, 
child-study,  and  pedagogical  predigestion  can  do  to  make  learn- 
ing attractive,  the  school  must  be  essentially  a  grind  on  facts 
and  principles  the  full  significance  of  which  the  child  cannot 
appreciate  and  which  consequently  must  appear  hard,  dry, 
and  dull.  The  world  is  so  big  and  complex,  the  mind  of  the 
child  is  so  small  and  simple,  that  the  process  of  the  application 
of  the  one  to  the  other  can  scarcely  be  effective  without  consider- 
able pain.* 

(The  underlying  statement  here  appears  to  be  that  lack  of 
understanding  of  a  subject  causes  it  to  appear  hard  and  dry. 
Are  there  no  other  causes  at  work  which  tend  to  make  the 
child  like  his  study  better  than  is  here  asserted?) 

(g)  Here  comes  in  to  advantage  the  ambition  of  the  athlete. 
Football  begins  with  or  before  the  college  year.  Training  for 
football  means  early  hours,  clean  life,  constant  occupation  for 
body  and  mind.  Breach  of  training  means  ostracism.  That 
this  game  tides  many  a  Freshman  over  a  great  danger,  by  keep- 
ing him  healthily  occupied,  I  have  come  firmly  to  believe.  It 
supplies  what  President  Ehot  calls  a  "new  and  effective  motive 
for  resisting  all  sins  which  weaken  or  corrupt  the  body";  it  ap- 
peals to  ambition  and  to  self-restraint;  it  gives  to  crude  youth  a 

*  See  footnote,  page  169. 

2  Hyde,  "The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Re- 
printed by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifllin  Company. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   CAUSE  171 

task  in  which  crude  youth  can  attain  finish  and  skill,  can  feel  the 
power  that  comes  of  surmounting  tremendous  obstacles  and  of 
recognition  for  surmounting  them;  moreover,  like  war,  it  affords 
an  outlet  for  the  reckless  courage  of  young  manhood, — the 
same  reckless  courage  that  in  idle  days  drives  young  men  head- 
long into  vice.i 

(What  is  the  underlying  notion  of  the  influence  necessary 
to  keep  a  young  student  from  evil  courses?) 

4.  Does  the  statement  of  cause  announced  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  agree  with  your  own  experience? 

Under  the  old  rdgime  it  was  unquestionably  a  most  serious 
problem  to  give  the  children  a  full  and  free  use  of  language. 
The  reason  was  obvious.  The  natural  motive  for  language 
was  seldom  offered.  In  the  pedagogical  text-books  language  is 
defined  as  the  medium  of  expressing  thought.  It  becomes  that, 
more  or  less,  to  adults  with  trained  minds,  but  it  hardly  needs 
to  be  said  that  language  is  primarily  a  social  thing,  a  means 
by  which  we  give  our  experiences  to  others  and  get  theirs 
again  in  return.  When  it  is  taken  from  its  natural  basis,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  it  becomes  a  complex  and  difficult  problem  to 
teach  language.  Think  of  the  absurdity  of  having  to  teach 
language  as  a  thing  by  itself.  If  there  is  anything  the  child 
will  do  before  he  goes  to  school,  it  is  to  talk  of  things  that  inter- 
est him.  But  when  there  are  no  vital  interests  appealed  to  in  the 
school,  when  language  is  used  simply  for  the  repetition  of  les- 
sons, it  is  not  surprising  that  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  of  school 
work  has  come  to  be  instruction  in  the  mother-tongue.  Since 
the  language  taught  is  unnatural,  not  growing  out  of  the  real 
desire  to  communicate  vital  impressions  and  convictions,  the 
freedom  of  children  in  its  use  gradually  disappears,  until  finally 
the  high-school  teacher  has  to  invent  all  kinds  of  devices  to  assist 
in  getting  any  spontaneous  and  full  use  of  speech.  Moreover, 
when  the  language  instinct  is  appealed  to  in  a  social  way,  there 

*  Briggs,  "  School,  College  and  Character."  Reprinted  by  per- 
mission of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


172    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

is  a  continual  contact  with  reality.  The  result  is  that  the  child 
always  has  something  in  his  mind  to  talk  about,  he  has  some- 
thing to  say;  he  has  a  thought  to  express,  and  a  thought  is  not 
a  thought  unless  it  is  one's  own.  On  the  traditional  method, 
the  child  must  say  something  that  he  has  merely  learned.  There 
is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  having  something  to 
say  and  having  to  say  something.^ 

5.  The  following  is  a  discussion  of  the  consequences  of 
wealth  and  poverty;  but  the  author  appears  to  ground 
his  notions  on  the  ideas  rather  than  on  the  detail  of  fact. 
Has  he  omitted  anything  essential  to  notice  in  the  condi- 
tions surrounding  rich  men  and  poor? 

Of  the  undergraduates  that  come  to  us  at  a  place  Hke  Yale 
I  suppose  that  about  two-thirds  may  be  classed  as  positively 
good.  I  do  not  mean  that  they  will  always  abstain  from  acts 
of  fooUshness;  but  that  they  can  be  counted  to  stand  fast  against 
serious  temptation,  to  come  out  right  of  themselves,  and  to  be 
an  active  influence  in  helping  those  about  them  to  do  right. 
Of  the  other  third,  only  a  small  minority  could  be  properly 
classed  as  vicious.  But  half  of  them  are  weak,  and  the  other 
half  are  selfish  to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  not  a  positive 
force  for  good,  and  may  readily  become  subject  to  serious 
danger  if  you  give  them  too  much  freedom.  Looking  at  these 
two  classes  side  by  side,  the  selfish  and  the  weak,  we  find  that 
there  are  more  selfish  men  among  the  poor  students  and  more 
weak  men  among  the  rich  ones;  so  that  the  aggregate  amount  of 
evil  and  danger  is  just  about  as  great  for  one  class  as  the  other. 
This  condition  is  just  about  what  one  might  expect  on  general 
grounds.  The  poor  boy  by  his  poverty  has  been  protected  from 
some  of  the  dangers  which  beset  the  rich  boy;  but  he  has  by  that 
very  fact  been  compelled  to  look  out  for  himself  in  such  a  way 
as  to  strengthen  all  selfish  impulses.  The  rich  boy  has  been 
brought  up  under  conditions  which  tend  to  make  him  generous 
and  free-handed  if  he  has  any  good  stuff  in  him  at  all;  but  these 

'  John  Dewey,  "  The  School  and  Society."    By  permission. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   CAUSE  173 

conditions  have  heightened  all  the  dangers  that  arise  from 
thoughtlessness  or  weakness  of  will.  I  suspect  that  the  net 
amount  of  strain  upon  the  moral  character  is  about  the  same 
for  rich  or  poor.^ 

6.  Attempt  to  develop  the  preceding  idea  more  fully, 
and  in  the  light  of  your  experience,  through  a  brief  essay 
on  the  theme:  What  will  be  the  natural  fears  and  pre- 
cautions of  a  wealthy  man  about  to  send  his  son  to  a 
large  American  college?  of  a  poor  man?  Those  who  enjoy 
their  work  more  in  a  dramatized  form  may  turn  this  exer- 
cise into  two  letters  from  imaginary  fathers  to  their  sons. 

7.  Compare  the  following  alleged  influences  of  the  size 
of  the.  college  with  your  own  experiences  and  those  of 
your  friends. 

It  is  often  urged  that  the  college  gives  a  man  the  oppor- 
tunity for  firmer  friendships,  that  he  comes  more  readily  into 
close  contact  with  his  fellows,  that  he  knows  more  men  and 
knows  them  better  than  is  possible  in  the  large  university. 
The  expression  runs  this  way:  "In  college,  a  fellow  knows  every- 
body and  everybody  knows  him;  in  a  university,  nobody  knows 
anybody."  There  is  much  fallacy  in  this.  In  the  first  place, 
the  value  of  acquaintance  and  friendship  is  not  to  be  measured 
by  quantity,  but  by  quaUty.  The  close  and  lasting  and  sincere 
friendship  of  even  one  thoughtful,  mature,  strong  man  is  of  far 
more  value  than  hail-fellow-well-met  relations  with  twenty  boys. 
The  few  men  who  spend  hours  together  each  day,  intent  upon 
a  common  task,  or  who  sit  about  a  seminar  table,  absorbed  in 
common  research  or  in  common  discussion,  are  far  more  stim- 
ulating and  helpful  to  each  other  than  are  the  Toms  and  Jims 
and  Harrys  who  hurrah  on  the  edge  of  the  athletic  field,  or  who 
always  enjoy  the  Hght-hearted  gayety  which  follows  the  close 
of  a  recitation  —  entirely  natural  and  proper  and  even  desir- 

^  Hadley,  "  Wealth  and  Democracy  in  American  Colleges." 
From  Harper's  Magazine,  113:450.  By  permission  of  Harper  & 
Brothers.     Copyright,  1906,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


174     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

able  as  all  this  may  be.  Further,  the  larger  the  number  of 
students  the  larger  the  opportunity  for  choice  —  and  choice 
plays  no  small  part  in  forming  helpful  personal  relations.  And, 
lastly,  there  is  a  sense  of  common  origin  and  common  indebted- 
ness and  common  pride  which  holds  together  even  the  thousands 
of  graduates  of  the  largest  university.  The  sense  of  mutual 
interest  and  the  wiUingness  to  exert  oneself  for  a  fellow-graduate 
seem  quite  as  strong  among  the  many  as  with  the  few,  while 
the  opportunities  for  helpfulness  increase  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  number  of  the  graduates.  An  institution  with  a  thousand 
alumni  in  each  of  the  four  great  professions  is  more  than  five 
times  as  helpful  to  each  graduate  as  an  institution  which  has  but 
two  hundred  representatives  in  each  field;  because,  all  other 
things  being  equal,  the  chances  of  contact  are  so  increased,  and 
the  entire  field  is  so  much  more  completely  covered,  and  the 
ratio  of  positively  influential  men  is  so  much  greater.  ^ 

8.  Study  a  photograph  of  a  painting  or  piece  of  sculp- 
ture, first  collecting  the  facts  and  then  attempting  to 
interpret  them  in  terms  of  character.  A  suitable  sub- 
ject is  that  already  referred  to  in  Exercise  3,  Part  II, 
Chapter  II. 

9.  Reason  out  carefully  the  character  of  Naaman  from 
Exercise  2,  Part  I,  Chapter  II.  Note  the  general  state- 
ments on  which  your  conclusions  rest. 

An  alternative  exercise  may  be  found  in  Stevenson, 
"The  Beach  at  Fal4sa,"  in  the  portion  which  relates  to 
the  first  visit  of  the  trader  to  the  devil-work  establish- 
ment and  the  finding  of  the  "Tyrolean  harp";  or  in  the 
character  of  Attwater  in  "The  Ebb  Tide"  (The  Pearl 
Fisher). 

10.  Study  the  probable  character  and  needs  of  the 
writer  of  the  following  letter.     In  the  light  of  the  con- 

*  Canfield,  "  The  College  Student  and  his  Problems."  Reprinted 
by  permission  of  The  Macmillan  Company. 


ARGUMENTS  FROM   CAUSE  175 

elusions  thus  drawn  attempt  to  frame  a  suitable  answer. 
Assume  that  you  know  the  father,  but  have  never  met  the 
son,  and  that  in  attending  college  the  son  would  necessarily 
leave  home  during  term  time.  Consider  which  of  your 
conclusions  depend  upon  cause  and  which  upon  analogy, 
and  how  the  question  of  evidence  needs  to  be  considered 
in  this  piece  of  reasoning.^ 

I  wish  to  apply  to  you  for  a  little  advice  regarding  my  son 
and  his  prospects.  You  know  that  he  has  been  fitting  for  col- 
lege in  the  local  high-school  here,  and  expected  to  enter  in  a 
year  more.  Lately,  however,  he  has  made  rather  a  mess  of 
his  studies  and  has  failed  conspicuously  in  his  Latin  and  Greek. 
Indeed  he  tells  me  that  he  has  taken  such  a  dislike  to  the  dead 
languages  that  he  strongly  desires  not  to  be  obliged  to  go  on 
with  his  college  course.  This  decision  is  naturally  a  great  dis- 
appointment to  me,  for,  as  you  know,  I  have  always  desired 
him  to  get  a  college  training,  the  more  so  as  I  have  seen  the  need 
of  it  in  my  own  work.  As  I  cannot  believe  that  my  son  is  natu- 
rally idle  or  vicious,  I  must  conclude  him  right  in  saying  that  loss 
of  interest  is  the  cause  of  his  failure  in  his  studies.  His  mother 
believes  that  misunderstanding  on  the  part  of  his  teachers  has 
had  something  to  do  with  it;  and  thinks  him  of  too  sensitive  a 
nature  to  do  his  best  work  where  he  is  not  appreciated.  But  that 
view  is  partly  due,  no  doubt,  to  a  mother's  partiality.  At  all 
events  we  do  not  feel  like  forcing  him  to  master  subjects 
which  he  so  strongly  dislikes. 

If  he  does  not  go  to  college,  a  scientific  school  presents  itself 
as  the  natural  alternative,  and  the  school  which  you  are  attend- 
ing seems  most  available.  I  do  not  know  that  my  son  has  shown 
a  fondness  for  any  special  branch  of  science,  but  he  has  certainly 
had  more  luck  with  mathematics  than  with  other  things.    Know- 

1  The  letter  is  inserted  merely  as  an  illustration  of  one  sort  of 
exercise  in  logic.  The  details  need  careful  adaptation  to  the  class. 
This  kind  of  exercise  represents  fully  a  variety  of  logical  problem 
that  business  men  find  confronting  them  daily  in  the  morning  mail. 


176    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

ing  that  you  have  recently  entered  on  a  scientific  course  at 
,  I  thought  you  might  be  able  to  give  me  ^ome  informa- 
tion. Do  you  think  my  son  would  be  able  to  fall  on  his  feet 
there  and  choose  a  course,  even  though  liis  ideas  of  what  he 
wants  are  at  present  quite  hazy?  Do  you  think  he  could  find 
stimulus  enough  to  get  him  once  more  into  the  habit  of  work? 


CHAPTER  V 
ARGUMENTS  FROM   DEFINITION 

The  distinction  has  been  already  noted  between  facts 
and  theories,  between  what  is  supposedly  true  and  what 
ought  to  be  or  must  be  true.  With  statements  concern- 
ing facts,  the  defence  rests,  preferably,  on  evidence. 
Facts,  if  given  the  opportunity,  speak  for  themselves;  and 
so  any  dispute  as  to  what  they  are  has  a  fair  prospect  of 
being  brought  to  a  conclusion.  When  we  find  them  so 
inaccessible  as  to  be  unable  to  speak  for  themselves,  we 
substitute  for  evidence  one  sort  or  another  of  reasoning. 
Knowing  what  similar  facts  are,  we  conclude  what  these 
will  probably  be;  or  we  study  them  in  the  light  of  their 
causes  or  effects. 

Statements  of  what  ought  to  be  or  what  must  be,  on 
the  other  hand,  require  a  wholly  different  treatment. 
Nature  knows  nothing  of  ought  or  must;  these  rest  on 
definitions,  in  determining  which  the  chief  part  is  played 
not  by  facts,  but  by  the  mind.  Statements  of  theory, 
therefore,  can  be  defended  only  by  the  assignment  of 
reasons,  which  deal  with  ideals  or  with  the  relations  of 
ideas.  ''No  man  should  fear  death"  is,  for  instance,  a 
statement  about  the  true  ideal  of  manly  conduct.  It 
would  be  spoken,  if  at  all,  for  instruction  and  encourage- 
ment, and  so  presumably  to  persons  who  had  never 
learned  or  had  forgotten  the  true  relations  between  courage 
and  manhood  or  the  true  notion  of  death.  In  either  case 
the  assertion  would  be  impressive  in  proportion  as  it  was 


178     XTCRIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

unfamiliar,  and  so  needed  proof.  The  hearers  would  take 
it  for  granted  that  the  speaker  had  in  mind  a  reason  for 
his  position,  which  for  them  was  likely  to  be,  after  all,  the 
vital  part  of  what  he  had  to  say.  This  reason  they  might 
very  probably  demand,  and  the  speaker,  in  presenting  it, 
would  give  his  proof.  In  this  CEise  the  first  two  steps  of 
the  proof  may  be  supplied  as  follows:  the  Reason,  — 
Death  is  but  the  passage  into  a  higher  state;  and  the 
Conclusion,  which  rests  upon  the  Reason,  —  No  man 
should  fear  death.  This  proof,  thro^vn  into  a  form  better 
calculated  to  show  the  relations  of  thought,  would  run  as 
follows: 

Conclusion :  The  true  notion  of  death  has  no  terrors,  for, 
Reason :  It  is  merely  the  notion  of  passage  into  a  higher  state. 
Still  further  simplified: 

D  is  not  T  for 
D'lsP 

Here  are  two  statements  of  theory,  two  expressed  rela- 
tions between  ideas.  The  notion  D  excludes  the  notion  T 
because  it  includes  the  notion  P,  Henry  is  not  sitting 
in  the  chair,  for  William  is  sitting  in  it.  If  this  is  a  valid 
reason  for  excluding  Henry  from  consideration,  it  must 
be  so  on  the  basis  of  some  general  principle,  such  as  would 
exclude  not  only  Henry,  but  Tom  and  Dick  as  well.  Such 
a  general  principle  exists  in  the  natural  law  that  two  bodies 
cannot  occupy  the  same  place  at  the  same  time.  In  a 
similar  way,  if  the  presence  of  P  in  our  proof  excludes  T, 
it  must  do  so  by  virtue  of  some  general  rule  governing  the 
relation  of  P  and  T.  The  rule  is  that  a  mere  passage  to 
a  higher  state,  in  whatever  form  you  take  it,  is  nothing 
to  be  afraid  of.  This  rule,  like  many  other  rules  in 
arguments  from  definition,  is  so  simple  as  scarcely  to 
require  statement,  and  almost  to  escape  notice.     Its  very 


ARGUMENTS  FROM   DEFINITION  179 

usefulness,  indeed,  depends  upon  its  being  self-evident; 
for  it  states  a  principle  which,  unless  one  felt  sure  that 
it  operated  everywhere  and  always,  would  have  no  con- 
vincing force  in  a  particular  argument. 

The  whole  process  of  proof,  then,  embodies  three  steps. 
In  this  case  they  may  be  written  in  generalized  form  as 
follows: 


Conclusion  : 

D  is  not  T     for 

Reason  : 

Z)  is  P            and 

Rule: 

P  is  not  T  1 

The  process  here  illustrated  is  general  for  all  arguments 
from  definition;  wherever  we  study  the  relation  between 
a  statement  and  a  reason,  the  same  steps  will  be  found  to 
occur.  Sometimes  the  Rule,  sometimes  the  Reason  is 
omitted,  perhaps  because  it  escapes  the  attention  of  the 
reasoner  himself,  and  perhaps  because  he  wishes  to  conceal 
it  or  thinks  it  sufficiently  obvious;  but  in  testing  the 
validity  of  the  reasoning  it  is  essential  to  discover  and 
examine  both. 

The  Reason  is  often  a  definition  based,  or  supposed  to 
be  based,  on  relations  of  fact.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  ascertain  how  far  it  corresponds  to  the  reality  it  pretends 

1  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  proof  here  referred  to  is  a  deductive 
conclusion  based  on  definitions.  Treatises  on  formal  logic  devote 
most  of  their  space  to  the  so-called  syllogism,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  form  above,  giving  it  a  treatment  as  nearly  mathematical  as 
the  nature  of  language  permits.  It  is  a  subject  of  considerable 
complexity,  which  the  student  may  well  take  up  after  he  has  mas- 
tered the  fundamental  principles  of  reasoning.  In  substance  a 
syllogism  may  be  based  on  a  definition,  a  statement  of  the  qualities 
of  a  class,  or  a  causal  law. 

The  form  of  analysis  is  in  this  chapter  somewhat  more  precisely 
indicated  than  it  was  in  connection  with  the  other  forms  of  argu- 
ment, but  the  student's  experience  with  logical  analysis  ought  by 
this  time  to  be  such  that  he  can  use  a  set  form  without  becoming  a 
slave  to  it. 


180     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

to  represent.  Take,  for  instance,  what  might  be  called 
the  proof  of  envy  or  ambition.  B's  life  is  a  happy  one: 
he  lives  in  a  fine  house,  smokes  expensive  cigars,  does  not 
go  to  his  office  till  ten  o'clock,  and  then  sits  all  day  at  his 
desk  in  an  armchair  with  leather  cushions.  In  outline 
this  proof  would  read  as  follows: 

B's  life  is  happiness     for 
X  is  happiness  and 

B's  life  is  X 

As  far  as  concerns  the  Rule,  that  the  easy-chair  and  the 
cigars  stand  for  happiness,  that,  from  the  envious  man's 
point  of  view,  is  probably  above  attack.  There  still 
remains,  however,  the  question  of  how  far  the  facts  cited 
in  the  Reason  are  really  representative  of  the  life  of  B. 
This  may  be  answ^ered  by  comparing  the  life  as  here  de- 
scribed with  actual  conditions.  Happiness  with  a  chair, 
a  house,  and  a  cigar  depends  less  upon  the  objects  them- 
selves than  upon  the  ability  to  fill  the  chair,  to  rule  the 
house,  and  to  enjoy  the  cigar. 

Again  the  Rule  rather  than  the  Reason  is  sometimes 
at  fault.  This  is  a  likely  condition  when,  as  often  happens, 
the  Rule  is  drawn  from  what  Jaques  called  "wise  saws 
and  modem  instances."  Men  have  a  habit  of  justifying 
their  conduct  by  referring  it  to  so-called  principles,  which 
are,  often  enough,  little  more  than  the  crystallized  thought- 
lessness of  the  chimney  comer,  made  dear  to  them,  like 
Mother  Goose,  by  the  associations  of  childhood.  Suppose, 
for  instance,  the  case  of  the  education  of  Master  Charles. 
His  parents,  being  easy-going  people,  averse  to  the  drudg- 
ery of  discipline,  let  him  rim  riot,  and  attempt  to  justify 
their  conduct  by  repeating  various  catchwords  about  the 
development  of  the  natural  impulses,  the  freedom  and 
joyousness  of  childhood,  and  the  danger  of  ''breaking  the 


'    ARGUMENTS  FROM   DEFINITION  181 

will."     Reduced   to   its   lowest   terms,    their   argument 
would  run  as  follows: 

Conclusion :  Master  Charles  is  as  he  should  be    for 
Reason:        Master  Charles  is  natural  and 

Rule :  Whatever  is  natural  is  as  it  should  be 

Whatever  one  may  think  of  the  Reason,  the  Rule,  at 
least,  is  open  to  the  charge  of  absurdity.  The  same 
principle  may  be  heard  in  a  thousand  different  forms: 
"The  appetite  is  the  best  test  of  what  is  good  for  you," 
''Nature  will  provide  her  own  cure,"  ''Boys  should  not 
be  forced  to  master  subjects  that  they  dislike,"  "Whatever 
is  is  right."  The  simple  sense  of  the  matter  is  that  nature 
knows  nothing  of  moral  distinctions.  These  belong,  not 
to  the  actual  world,  but  to  the  world  of  theories;  and  the 
fact,  if  such  it  be,  that  Master  Charles  is  natural  has  no 
bearing  whatever  on  the  question  of  whether  he  is  good. 
Thus  in  this  case  the  whole  test  of  the  argument  may  be 
made  to  depend  on  the  examination  of  the  Rule,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  relation  it  sets  forth  is,  in  reason,  as 
general  as  the  Rule  pretends. 

Examination  of  the  Reason  and  examination  of  the 
Rule  are  the  only  two  methods  of  attacking  an  argument 
from  definition;  and,  conversely,  if  these  two  statements 
are  admitted,  the  Conclusion  inevitably  follows.  If  one 
admits  that  Master  Charles  is  natural  and  that  to  be 
natural  is  to  be  good,  it  follows,  as  two  and  two  make 
four,  that  Master  Charles  is  good.  There  is  here  the 
precise  sort  of  demonstration  which  is  attained  in  mathe- 
matics. It  is  based  on  the  relations  of  ideas,  and  these 
relations  in  turn  depend  upon  definitions,  which  are 
absolutely  under  human  control.  We  may  rely  upon 
them,  for,  wherever  we  put  them,  there  they  are  obliged 
to  stay.    Being  creatures  of  reason,  they  behave  in  a 


182     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

rational  way.  The  uncertainty  of  all  our  other  reasoning 
arises  from  the  unaccountable  capriciousness  of  facts; 
but  in  arguments  from  definition  facts  play  only  a  minor 
part.  Though  they  may  suggest  changes  in  definition, 
no  one  is  obliged  to  make  the  changes  unless  he  choose. 
Thus,  if  we  admit  the  definitions,  Master  Charles  must 
be  credited  with  goodness  whatever  the  character  of  his 
deeds.  He  may  ring  the  door-bell,  and  break  the  windows, 
and  choke  the  cat.  His  title  to  a  halo  rests  on  theory, 
and  no  mere  fact  can  touch  it.  Precisely  so  the  relation 
of  diameter  to  circumference  remains  unshaken,  though 
there  are  no  circles  in  the  world  of  fact. 

The  certainty  derived  from  argument  of  this  sort  is, 
however,  limited  to  those  who  are  willing  to  agree  with 
the  definitions;  and  in  definitions,  as  in  other  matters, 
to  obtain  a  man's  agreement  it  is  necessary  to  please  his 
tastes  and  to  avoid  conflict  with  his  interests.  The  stable 
position  of  mathematics  is  due  chiefly,  perhaps,  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  the  same  bearing  on  the  lives  of  all  of  us, 
and  that  this  bearing  is  not  too  intimate..  As  we  are  not 
ourselves  embodiments  of  the  square  or  the  circle,  we  care 
relatively  little  how  these  ideas  are  defined.  In  philosophy, 
theology,  and  political  economy,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
underlying  ideals  often  touch  unpleasantly  on  our  interests, 
as  in  art,  music,  and  literature  they  sometimes  conflict 
with  om*  tastes.  A  new  theory  of  taxation  may  result  in 
lessening  one's  income  by  some  thousands;  a  new  defini- 
tion of  goodness  may  remove  one  from  the  sheep  to  the 
goats.  Thus  all  these  subjects  present  bodies  of  theory 
which  are  and  ever  must  be  in  constant  unrest.  Since 
men  cannot  agree  on  the  definitions,  the  conclusions  have 
no  uniformity  or  generally  acknowledged  force. 

In  all  such  differences  of  opinion  the  basis  of  possible 
agreement  is  two-fold.     One  may  appeal  to  reason  or  to 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  183 

authority;  one  may  assert  that  a  statement  of  theory  is 
nonsense,  or  that  it  does  not  conform  to  the  usage  of  ideas 
established  by  those  best  fitted  to  judge.  Reason,  if  the 
more  convincing  test,  is  the  more  difiicult  to  apply,  for 
it  must  rest  wholly  on  an  attempt  to  carry  the  dispute 
back  to  more  fundamental  definitions;  and  there  the  dif- 
ference of  opinion  is  likely  to  become  even  more  marked 
than  it  was  before.  If  Farmer  Brown  and  his  wife  can- 
not agree  on  the  question  of  what  is  a  pretty  hat,  it  is 
highly  unlikely  that  they  can  agree  on  the  definition  of 
beauty.  Thus  the  more  hopeful  recourse  is  an  appeal  to 
authority.  Now  and  then  this  authority  may  be  some 
group  of  experts,  but  in  the  larger  view  and  in  most  cases 
it  is  the  common  sense  of  the  race.  The  final  test  of 
truth  is  a  social  test.  The  evidence  of  this  broader  founda- 
tion may  be  seen  in  all  solidly  built  systems  of  thought. 
They  are  the  product  less  of  the  thinker  than  of  the  age. 
He  attains  the  most  useful  theories  who  expresses  in  them 
the  ideals  of  the  majority  of  his  fellow-men. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Imagine  the  following  arguments  of  a  timid  rider 
who  decides  not  to  use  his  riding-crop  on  a  restive  Ken- 
tucky saddle-horse.  Which  are  based  upon  resemblance 
and  which  upon  cause? 

If  I  whip  this  horse  he  will  unseat  me: 

He  is  a  nervous  horse; 

^    His  ears  are  laid  back; 

He  threw  me  last  Thursday; 

The  last  Kentucky  thoroughbred  I  had  would  not  stand 
the  whip. 

2.  The  following  outline  presents  a  variety  of  inferences 
as  to  the  character  of  the  writer  of  the  letter  in  Exercise 


184    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

10,  Part  III,  Chapter  IV.  It  shows  something  of  the 
nature  and  value  of  our  conclusions  about  other  people. 
The  student  should  consider  in  detail  as  many  of  the 
arguments  as  time  permits.  What  is  the  rule  or  definition 
on  which  they  are  based?  Are  they  arguments  from 
resemblance,  from  cause,  or  from  definition?  Where  is 
the  weak  point  in  them? 

The  writer  of  the  letter  is: 

I.  A  travelling  man:  {for  or  because  henceforth  understood) 

(a)  Absent  from  home. 

Does  not  know  family  well. 
(6)  Does  not  write  many  letters. 

This  one  not  businesslike, 
(c)  Feels  need  of  college  education. 

II.  Business  man: 

(a)  Absent  from  home. 

(6)  Tolerant  attitude  toward  wife  and  son. 

(c)  Can  write  a  letter  that  arouses  sympathy. 

III.  Not  a  business  man: 

(a)  Letter  not  formal  and  stiff. 
(6)  Not  compact  and  direct. 

(c)  Without  business  terms. 

(d)  Feels  need  of  college  training. 
rV.  Educated  man: 

(o)  Has  seen  usefulness  of  his  education  in  business. 
(6)  Good  language. 

(Colloquial  because  writing  to  student.) 
(c)  If  self-made,  would  be  more  severe  in  training 
son. 

V.  Self-made  man;  without  regular  education. 

(a)  Feels  need  of  schooling  in  business. 
(6)  Knows  little  of  schools. 

VI.  Knows  something  of  the  college  about  which  he  asks 

information, 
(o)  Thinks  it  a  desirable  school. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  185 

(6)  Kjiows  that  mathematics  are  fundamental  to 

scientific  studies, 
(c)  Latin  and  Greek  not  required. 

VII.  Knows  nothing  of  the  college: 

(a)  Otherwise  would  not  write  to  student  for  in- 
formation. 

VIII.  Does  not  beheve  in  scientific  training: 
(a)  Desired  college  course. 

(6)  "Alternative." 

(c)  Does  not  know  influence  of  scientific  school  work 
in  stimulating  serious  activity. 

IX.  Cares  for  boy;  sympathetic. 

(a)  Willing  to  believe  best;  accepts  son's  statement. 
(6)  Too  busy  to  find  out  for  himself, 
(c)  Tone  of  letter  due  to  desire  to  appear  impartial. 
{d)  Happy  home. 

Deference  to  wife's  views. 

Wife  manages  the  boy. 

X.  Indifferent;  moved  by  sense  of  duty. 

(a)  Tone  of  letter  cold. 

(6)  Lacks    confidence   in   boy's    ability;    "luck   in 
mathematics." 

(c)  Thinks  boy  idle. 

"Cannot    believe,    etc.,"    is    merely    formal 

and  polite. 
Does  not  accept  mother's  view. 

(d)  Has  not  bothered  to  consult  teachers. 

(e)  Student    not    proper    source    for    one    really 

interested. 
(/)  Has  not  looked  into  the  case: 

No  information  except  from  the  boy. 

Considers  mother's  view  merely  on  its  gen- 
eral merits. 

If  knew  more,  would  naturally  impart  it  to 
the  one  asked  to  advise. 

Just  awake  to  the  difficulty. 

Does  not  know  the  boy's  tastes. 


186    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

XI.  Has  spoiled  his  son. 

(a)  Much  anxiety  over  the  case. 

(6)  Favored  by  mother. 

(c)  Not  forced  to  do  disagreeable  tasks. 

XII.  Not  spoiled: 

(o)  Father  desires  him  to  work  voluntarily. 
(6)  Knows  he  cannot  succeed  without  aptitude. 

3.  Give  each  of  the  following  proofs  in  outline  form, 
and  then  examine  both  the  Reason  and  the  Rule. 

(o)  On  the  large  city  dailies  all  the  editor  has  to  do  is  to  hire 
men  who  can  report  events  and  write  them  up  in  an  interesting 
way,  to  employ  reliable  workmen  to  see  to  the  printing  of  the 
paper,  and  then  to  find  people  to  sell  it.  If  his  paper  is  interest- 
ing, people  in  general  will  buy  it.  To  be  sure,  these  papers 
have  a  great  deal  of  advertising,  but  that  will  come  of  itself 
if  the  paper  is  popular.  The  country  editor  has  no  such  easy 
time.     ("Proof  of  envy.") 

(6)  The  trust  is  a  natural  condition,  the  direct  result  of  the 
law  of  evolution.  As  civiUzation  advances,  combination  be- 
comes more  and  more  necessary.  First  the  people  divide  into 
trades;  then  two  men,  engaged  in  the  same  trade,  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  combine,  and  so  a  partnership  is  formed.  From  the 
partnership  comes  the  corporation;  then  a  combination  of  cor- 
porations, called  a  trust.  (From  an  argument  that  trusts  are 
beneficial.    Compare  the  education  of  Master  Charles.) 

(c)  Freedom  in  the  choice  of  courses  cannot  fail  to  be  good 
for  a  man.  After  a  man  comes  from  the  fitting  school,  where 
the  work  is  prescribed  and  necessarily  rather  disagreeable,  it 
seems  to  me  that  the  freedom  of  thought  and  seK-reliance  de- 
rived from  the  free  choice  of  courses  will  be  of  great  value  in 
forming  and  moulding  his  character.  Though  in  school  a  boy  is 
treated  as  a  boy,  would  it  be  right  to  treat  a  man  in  college  as 
a  boy?    And  yet  this  is  what  the  prescribed  course  does. 

(d)  It  is  not  possible  for  a  student  to  know  much  of  any- 
thing when  he  is  required  to  know  a  little  of  everything  else. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  187 

(e)  It  is  the  proper  business  of  the  student  to  study.  If  the 
only  real  requirement  is  to  pass  certain  examinations  twice  a 
year,  if  the  student  crams  two  weeks  and  loiters  thirty  weeks, 
he  is  demoralized.  What  is  more  demoralizing  than  to  substi- 
tute appearance  for  reahty?  ^ 

(/)  Even  if  our  Hfe  is  a  small,  sheltered  one,  even  if  we  have 
only  our  house  or  rooms  to  look  after,  things  tend  to  get  out  of 
order,  to  pile  themselves  up  in  heaps,  to  get  out  of  our  reach 
and  into  each  other's  way.  To  leave  things  in  this  chaos  is 
both  unwise  and  unjust;  for  it  will  trouble  us  in  the  future  and 
trouble  the  people  who  have  to  live  with  us.  Yet  it  costs  pain  and 
effort  to  attack  this  chaos  and  subject  it  to  order.  Endurance 
of  pain,  in  the  name  of  wisdom  and  justice,  to  secure  order  for 
our  own  future  comfort  and  the  comfort  of  our  family  and  friends, 
is  courage.  On  the  other  hand,  to  leave  things  lying  in  confu- 
sion around  us,  to  let  aHen  forces  come  into  our  domain  and 
encamp  there  in  insolent  defiance  of  ourselves  and  our  friends, 
is  a  shameful  confession  that  things  are  stronger  than  we.  To 
be  thus  conquered  by  dead  material  things  is  as  ignominious 
a  defeat  as  can  come  to  a  man.  The  man  who  can  be  conquered 
by  things  is  a  coward  in  the  strict  ethical  sense  of  the  term; 
that  is,  he  lacks  the  strength  of  will  to  bear  the  incidental  pains 
which  his  personal  and  social  interests  put  upon  him.^ 

(g)  There  are  many  excellent  men  who  are  professionals. 
I  make  no  criticism  of  them  individually;  I  could  not  be  inter- 
preted as  reflecting  upon  their  honesty  of  purpose  or  their 
personal  character.  In  the  nature  of  things,  in  the  common 
sense  of  things,  a  man  who  is  employed  to  coach  and  make 
football  teams,  baseball  teams,  track  teams,  crews,  what 
you  will,  is  bound  to  be  governed  by  the  single  thought  of  win- 
ning. It  is  his  business;  it  is  his  reputation,  it  is  his  hfe's 
work,  his  success,  his  all  in  all  to  turn  out  teams  that  beat  the 

^  Harris,  "  Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  its  Students  ?  "  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 

«Hyde,  "The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Re- 
printed by  permission  of  Houghton  Miffin  Company. 


188    VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

combinations  of  a  rival  university.    He  must  win  in  order  to 
hold  his  job.^ 

4.  Test  the  following  arguments  in  accordance  with  the 
hints  furnished  with  each. 

(a)  After  all,  athletics  is  simply  one  of  the  student  activities. 
It  is  more  important  than  the  others,  in  social  value,  but  not 
essentially  different  from  them  in  any  respect.  In  these  recent 
years,  however,  it  has  been  exalted  to  a  place  in  the  general 
university  poUcy  —  it  has  become  a  method  of  advertising. 
Winning  teams  pay,  we  are  told;  they  attract  students,  and 
with  more  students  come  better  athletics,  and  so  the  fame  and 
welfare  of  Alma  Mater  are  assured.  In  this  scheme  of  athletics 
the  aim  must  not  be  clean,  manly  sport,  but  victories.  This  is 
the  evil  which  is  most  fundamental,  most  subtle,  most  dan- 
gerous of  all.  Until  this  evil  is  done  away  with,  httle  will  be 
accomplished  in  the  purifying  of  the  athletic  system.' 

(Give  in  outline  the  reasons  here  implied  for  the  assertion 
that  intercollegiate  athletics  make  it  natural  to  prefer  victory 
to  clean  sport.) 

(6)  A  prescribed  course  in  engineering,  or  in  any  field  in  which 
one  subject  follows  another,  and  each  is  dependent  on  the  pre- 
ceding, has  the  respect  of  the  student.  He  can  see  the  causes 
w^hich  control,  and  he  can  see  the  end  to  which  the  work  leads. 
No  one  complains  of  prescribed  courses  when  the  relation  of  sub- 
jects to  the  final  end  makes  the  prescription  natural  and  inevita- 
ble. No  medical  student  complains  because  anatomy,  psychology, 
chemistry,  pharmacology,  and  bacteriology  are  prescribed.' 

(What  is  the  relation  to  this  proof  of  the  statement  that 
respect  for  a  thing  involves  understanding  of  its  usefulness?) 

'  Whitney,  "  Who  is  Responsible  for  the  Commercialism  in  Col- 
lege Sport?  "      Outing  Magazine,  46: 485.    Reprinted  by  permission. 

«  Meiklejohn,  "  The  Evils  of  College  Athletics."  From  Harper's 
Weekly,  49:1751.  By  permission  of  Harper  &  Brothers.  Copy- 
right, 1905,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 

^Jordan,  "The  Proposed  Changes  at  Harvard."  The  North 
American  Review,  191 :  446.    Reprinted  by  permission. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  189 

(c)  The  thorough  knowledge  of  something  is  the  backbone  of 
education.  To  know  some  one  thing  well,  it  does  not  so  much 
matter  what  it  is,  is  to  gain  self-respect.  It  gives  a  base-hne 
by  which  one  can  measure  the  attainments  of  others.  It  helps 
us  to  "Know  a  good  man  when  we  see  him,"  which  WiUiam 
James  has  declared  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  aims  of  higher 
education.  Sound  knowledge  of  any  kind  preserves  its  possessor 
aUke  from  assertive  vanity  and  from  hmp  humihty.^ 

(What  is  the  implied  ideal  of  th^  educated  man?) 

(d)  It  certainly  is  true  that  the  radical  point  of  failure  in 
any  life,  if  there  be  one,  is  ethical,  and  that  the  life  of  any  col- 
lege graduate  cannot  be  regarded  as  successful  which  is  a  moral 
failure.  Theoretically,  at  least,  all  thoughtful  people  agree 
that  a  noble  life  is  better  than  one  possessed  of  mere  intel- 
lectual skill  and  stores  of  information.  The  most  essential 
thing  in  the  training  of  young  people  is  the  production  of  posi- 
tive morality.2 

(On  what  characteristic  of  the  definition  of  true  education 
is  this  truth  based?) 

(e)  When  we  ask  ourselves  why  a  knowledge  of  literature 
seems  indispensable  to  the  ordinary  idea  of  cultivation,  we 
find  no  answer  except  this:  that  in  hterature  are  portrayed  all 
human  passions,  desires,  and  aspirations,  and  that  acquaintance 
with  these  human  feehngs,  and  with  the  means  of  portraying 
them,  seems  to  be  essential  to  culture.  These  human  qual- 
ities and  powers  are  also  the  commonest  ground  of  interesting 
human  intercourse,  and  therefore  literary  knowledge  exalts  the 
quality  and  enhances  the  enjoyment  of  human  intercourse.  It 
is  in  conversation  that  cultivation  tells  as  much  as  anywhere, 
and  this  rapid  exchange  of  thoughts  is  by  far  the  conmaonest 
manifestation  of  its  power.^ 

1  See  footnote  3,  page  188. 

2  Slocum,  "  Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  its  Students?"  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 

'  Eliot,  "  Present  College  Questions."  Reprinted  by  permission 
of  D.  Appleton  &  Company. 


190    \^RIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

(What  is  the  definition  of  culture  on  which  the  preceding 
proof  is  based?) 

(/)  The  American  college  or  university  stands  for  social 
advancement  as  well  as  for  intellectual  discipUne.  The  univer- 
sity is  the  gateway  through  which  democracy  passes  to  the 
refinement  of  its  strength.  Universities  in  the  older  countries 
assume  for  the  most  part  certain  social  quahties  which  are  here 
in  the  making.  It  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  pecuUar  respon- 
sibilities which  must  be  borne  by  the  higher  education  in  a  coun- 
try which  is  still  new.  Even  in  New  England,  there  is  a  greater 
preponderance,  in  all  our  colleges,  of  those  from  new  families 
— families,  that  is,  which  have  not  been  represented  before  in 
college  training. » 

(Is  the  f ollo\nng  a  fair  statement  of  the  principle  behind  this 
reasoning:  The  school  ought  to  supply  all  that  the  student 
lacks?     If  so,  is  the  principle  a  wise  one?) 

(g)  No  game  is  fit  for  college  uses  in  which  men  are  often 
so  knocked  or  crushed  into  insensibihty  or  immobihty  that  it 
is  a  question  whether  by  the  apphcation  of  water  and  stimu- 
lants they  can  be  brought  to  and  enabled  to  go  on  playing. 
No  game  is  fit  for  college  uses  in  which  recklessness  in  causing 
or  suffering  serious  bodily  injuries  promotes  efficiency  and  so 
is  taught  and  held  up  for  admiration.  An  extreme  recklessness 
remains  a  grave  objection  to  the  game  of  football,  and  it  also 
makes  basketball  and  hockey  as  developed  in  recent  years 
imdesirable  games.* 

(W^hat  is  the  ideal  of  college  sport  behind  this  reasoning?) 

(h)  Manners  cannot  be  taught  —  not,  at  least,  the  manners 
of  a  gentleman.  On  the  inner  side  it  means  the  training  of 
the  spirit,  and  on  the  outer  side  it  means  association.  Manners 
come  to  be  more  and  more  manner  —  the  whole  bearing  of  a 
man.  And  this  result  —  apart  from  the  ceaseless  working  of 
the  spirit  —  is  a  pure  matter  of  form,  and  therefore  the  effect 

^  Tucker,  "  Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  its  Students?"  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 

'  President's  Report,  Harvard  University,  1905-6,  p.  44. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  191 

of  environment.  It  is  the  subtle  distinction  of  manners  that 
they  come  to  us,  not  by  what  we  do  under  our  own  initiative, 
but  from  what  others  are  doing  around  us.  Manners  good  and 
bad  are  communicated. ^ 

(What  is  the  imphed  definition  of  things  that  can  be  taught, 
and  what  the  idea  of  teaching  behind  it?) 

(i)  But  as  we  went  from  the  field,  my  friend  began  to  ask  me 
questions.  "Do  you  consider  that  sport  healthy  and  normal?" 
he  asked.  "Did  you  see  the  slugging?  Did  you  notice  that 
the  boys  were  cheering  to  drown  out  the  other  team's  signals? 
Is  it  true  that  there  are  men  on  each  team  who  had  no  right  to 
play,  under  the  rules?  Do  the  students  condone  and  encourage 
evasion  of  the  rules?  Is  it  true  that  preparatory-school  players 
are  attracted  to  the  colleges  by  '  inducements? '  Aren't  there 
lots  of  other  evils?"  And  when  to  all  these  questions  I  had 
reluctantly  assented,  he  demanded:  "Why,  then,  do  you  col- 
lege men  permit  these  things;  why  don't  you  stop  athletics 
altogether?  Isn't  it  better  to  have  no  games  at  all  than  to  have 
them  at  the  cost  of  fairness  and  honesty? "  ^ 

(Define  the  ideal  of  healthy  and  normal  sport  behind  this 
reasoning.) 

(j)  First,  then,  why  should  we  have  intercollegiate  compe- 
tition at  all?  So  far  as  football,  baseball,  and  rowing  are 
concerned,  it  is  neither  good  exercise  nor  good  fun  for  the 
participants.  The  training  to  which  the  men  are  subjected  is 
far  too  severe  and  prolonged  to  be  good  exercise  for  a  student. 
Games  within  the  college,  games  between  classes,  dormitories, 
fraternities  —  these  are  far  better  forms  of  exercise  from  the 
standpoint  of  health  and  fun  than  is  intercollegiate  competi- 
tion. But  the  value  of  intercollegiate  competition  is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  theirs  —  a  value  which  justifies  the  sacrifice  of  fun, 

1  Tucker,  "Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 
with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  its  Students?"  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 

"  Meiklejohn,  "  The  Evils  of  College  Athletics."  From  Harper's 
Weekly,  49: 1751.  By  permission  of  Harper  &  Brothers.  Copy- 
right, 1905,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


192     VERIFICATION  AND  PROOF  OF  STATEMENTS 

of  time,  of  strength,  and  even,  to  some  extent,  of  health.  It  is 
the  value  of  fm-nishing  a  dominant  social  interest,  of  fusing 
together  the  members  of  a  college  community,  of  developing  a 
college  democracy,  of  creating  a  "  college  spirit."  * 

(In  tliis  instance  of  reasoning  from  an  ideal  can  you  add 
other  points  desirable  in  college  sport?) 

(k)  You  eat  the  bread  the  farmer,  the  ranchman,  the  butcher, 
the  grocer  prepare  for  you.  You  hve  in  houses  the  forester, 
the  stone-cutter,  the  carpenter,  the  mason,  the  painter,  the 
upholsterer  furnish  for  you.  You  wear  the  clothing  which  the 
shepherd,  the  plantation  hand,  the  mill-operative,  the  shop- 
keeper, the  seamstress,  the  tailor  provide  for  you.  You  sit  by 
the  fire  the  miner,  the  locomotive  engineer,  the  brakeman,  the 
sailor,  the  teamster  has  built  in  your  grate.  Have  you  yet 
done  anything  for  them  that  is  worth  as  much  as  the  things 
they  are  daily  doing  for  you?  If  not,  then  look  up  to  them  with 
heartfelt  gratitude  and  admiration,  as  the  soldier  says  to  the 
water-carrier  in  KipUng's  Hues: 

"You're  a  better  man  than  I  am, 
Gunga  Din."  * 

(What  is  the  principle  behind  this  reasoning?  Is  the  weak 
spot  to  be  found  in  that  principle  or  in  the  Reason?) 

(0  Moderate  drinking  and  smoking  undoubtedly  have  still  a 
long  lease  of  Ufe.  .  .  .  That  multitudes  of  people  will  continue 
the  practice,  and  will  do  so  under  the  impression,  right  or  wrong, 
that  they  are  doing  what  is  wisest  and  best  for  themselves, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  Such  people  are  not  to  be  condemned 
as  intemperate.  Whatever  the  final  verdict  of  physiology  may 
be,  so  long  as  these  people  beheve  on  the  testimony  of  expert 
authorities  whose  judgment  they  trust,  and  on  their  own  expe- 
rience so  far  as  they  are  competent  to  interpret  it,  that  modera- 
tion in  the  use  of  alcohohc  drink  is  good  for  them,  they  are 
wise  and  temperate  in  its  use.    For  moraUty  is  not  a  matter  of 

*See  footnote  2,  page  191. 

«Hyde,  "The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Re- 
printed by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifl9in  Company. 


ARGUMENTS   FROM   DEFINITION  193 

right  or  wrong  opinion  about  physiological  questions.  It  is  a 
question  of  personal  attitude  toward  the  opinions  which  one 
holds.i 

(Give  a  plainer,  fuller  statement  of  the  implied  principle. 
Are  wisdom  and  temperance  the  whole  of  "morality"  in  a 
case  of  this  sort?  Or  was  it  not  the  author's  intention  to 
imply  that  such  people  are  also  moral?) 

(m)  These  two  kinds  of  imagination  —  Dante's  and  Lyell's 
—  are  not  comparable,  but  both  are  manifestations  of  a  great 
human  power.  Zola,  in  La  Bete  Humaine,  contrives  that  ten 
persons,  all  connected  with  the  railroad  from  Paris  to  Havre, 
shall  be  either  murderers  or  murdered,  or  both,  within  eighteen 
months;  and  he  adds  two  railroad  slaughters  criminally  pro- 
cured. The  conditions  of  time  and  place  are  ingeniously  im- 
agined, and  no  detail  is  omitted  which  can  heighten  the  effect 
of  this  homicidal  fiction.  Contrast  this  kind  of  constructive 
imagination  with  the  kind  which  conceived  the  great  wells  sunk 
in  the  soUd  rock  below  Niagara  that  contain  the  turbines  that 
drive  the  dynamos  that  generate  the  electric  force  that  turns 
thousands  of  wheels  and  lights  thousands  of  lamps  over  hun- 
dreds of  square  miles  of  adjoining  territory;  or  with  the  kind 
that  conceives  the  sending  of  human  thoughts  across  three 
thousand  miles  of  stormy  sea  instantaneously  on  nothing  more 
substantial  than  ethereal  waves.  There  is  no  crime,  cruelty, 
or  lust  about  these  last  two  sorts  of  imagining.  No  lurid  fire  of 
hell  or  human  passion  illumines  their  scenes.  They  are  calm, 
accurate,  just,  and  responsible,  and  nothing  but  beneficence 
and  increased  human  well-being  results  from  them.^ 

(What  is  the  Rule  in  this  proof?  Is  the  Reason  a  fair  state- 
ment of  the  facts  in  the  case?) 

1  Hyde,  "  The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman."  Re- 
printed by  permission  of  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

2  Eliot,  "  Present  College  Questions."  Reprinted  by  permission 
of  D.  Appleton  &  Company. 


CONCLUSION 
THE  POINT  OF  VIEW 

It  remains  only  to  sum  up  in  a  few  words  the  principles 
already  covered.  Our  experience,  our  real  world,  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  too  complex  and  transient  to  be  completely 
and  clearly  grasped.  Only  parts  of  it,  therefore,  ever  rise 
to  the  level  of  full  knowledge  and  expression.  These 
must  first  be  selected  by  the  attention  from  the  current 
of  half-formed  ideas  and  possible  sensations  always  sweep- 
ing through  our  minds.  The  attention,  however,  not 
only  chooses  and  rejects,  but  it  does  so  on  definite  and 
limited  principles.  That  is  to  say,  it  takes  up  only  what 
it  has  been  trained  to  take,  what  touches  the  interest  or 
has  in  it  a  familiar  strain.  The  rest  of  our  possible 
material  for  thought  and  expression  retreats  into  the 
background  or  entirely  fades  away. 

Even  the  parts  of  our  experience  which  attention  has 
selected  do  not  get  into  thought  unmodified.  Our  interest 
in  them  is  strictly  limited;  we  attempt  only  to  measure 
them  against  our  standards,  the  ideas  derived  from  pre- 
vious reasoning  or  thought,  and  to  determine  how  far 
they  fall  short  or  exceed.  This  process  brings  to  light 
merely  such  qualities  as  seem  related  to  the  momentary 
purpose.  It  gives  a  limited  conception,  and  one  which 
grows  more  and  more  restricted  in  proportion  as  we  strive 
for  detailed  accuracy  in  observation  and  exactness  in 
thought.  After  this  examination  has  been  made,  we  have 
as  a  rule  no  further  use  for  the  things  themselves,  but 


THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  195 

substitute  in  their  places  the  qualities  we  have  found  in 
them.  So  it  happens,  for  instance,  in  judging  men.  Let 
a  man  enter  the  ministry  and  he  becomes,  for  the  thinking 
of  most  people,  an  animated  catalogue  of  the  Christian 
virtues.  Let  him  enter  the  employ  of  a  bank  and  he  is 
thought  of  as  a  reliable  machine  for  counting  money. 
After  these  transformations  nothing  can  cause  more  sur- 
prise than  for  the  subject  to  come  to  life  again  and  un- 
expectedly show  human  qualities  which  thought  cannot 
reconcile  with  his  profession.  The  same  thing  happens 
in  all  other  connections;  we  use  our  experience  as  material 
for  thought,  but  in  thus  employing  it  we  disregard  entirely 
whatever  is  unrelated  to  the  purpose  of  our  thinking. 
We  make  our  subjects  of  thought  what  we  please  by  the 
wilful  selection  of  the  ideas  and  ideals  in  the  light  of  which 
we  measure  them. 

These  mental  standards  are  the  system  of  weights  and 
measures  with  which  we  go  forth  to  try  the  world.  They 
are  the  character,  the  self,  on  the  intellectual  side.  They 
represent,  among  other  things,  all  the  prejudices  of  our 
birth,  early  training,  family  history,  and  place  in  society. 
Even  education  plays  its  part  in  the  forming  of  this 
character,  for  study  fills  the  closet  with  new  utensils, 
though  it  by  no  means  enforces  their  use.  In  virtue  of 
this  equipment,  each  of  us  differs  intellectually  from  all 
other  people  in  the  world.  Our  thinking  is  our  own,  and 
our  facts  are  as  personal  as  the  expression  of  our  faces. 

It  therefore  follows,  as  a  matter  of  demonstration  and 
aside  from  questions  of  modesty  or  good  taste,  that  no 
man  can  claim  to  have  monopoHzed  the  truth  or  said  the 
last  word  on  any  subject.  The  most  he  can  pretend  to  is 
to  give  a  clear  and  exact  representation  of  things  as  they 
look  from  his  point  of  view.  There  are,  indeed,  two 
claims  by  which  a  man  may  seek  to  dignify  his  point  of 


196  THE  POINT   OF   VIEW 

view  above  that  of  others.  That  is  to  say,  he  may  assert 
that  from  his  position  one  sees  all  that  is  essential  in 
the  reality,  or  all  that  is  important.  Neither  assertion, 
however,  should  be  taken  too  seriously.  Since  we  do  not 
know  reality  well  enough  to  be  sure  which  part  of  itself 
it  would  consider  essential  in  the  absolute  sense,  we  can 
judge  of  the  essential  only  as  we  judge  of  the  important, 
in  the  light  of  a  particular  purpose.  Moreover  life  teaches 
us  again  and  again  that,  when  a  man  becomes  too  much 
absorbed  in  a  particular  purpose,  he  is  sure  to  let  slip 
much  truth  of  which  he  will  later  stand  sorely  in  need. 
Aside  from  the  question  of  accuracy,  then,  the  whole 
matter  of  differences  in  facts  resolves  itself  into  a  difference 
in  purposes;  and  here  there  should  be  the  broadest  tolera- 
tion. The  highly  developed  mind  will  avoid  the  assertion 
that  another's  purpose  is  wrongly  chosen,  and  will  wel- 
come all  differences  in  aim,  all  varieties  of  point  of  view, 
as  invaluable  contributions  to  the  activity,  and  even  to 
the  interest,  of  the  world.  Here,  too,  there  is  consolation 
for  the  timid  and  the  self-conscious.  The  knowledge  of 
the  p>ersonal  character  of  thought  is  likely  to  frighten 
such  natures  and  to  hold  them  back  from  expression. 
They  fear  to  arouse  ridicule,  and  in  their  thinking  seek  the 
safe  level  of  the  commonplace.  Let  them,  on  the  con- 
trary, take  courage.  The  interest,  and  in  some  degree 
the  value,  of  all  work  is  dependent  upon  individuality 
of  purpose  and  point  of  view.  The  attempt  to  adopt 
another's  point  of  view,  when  not  useless,  is  suicidal. 
The  only  serious  chance  of  error  in  such  matters  lies,  not 
in  having  a  definite  and  personal  point  of  view,  but  in 
lacking  it. 

One  more  consolation  may  be  derived  from  a  knowledge 
of  the  personal  character  of  thought.  In  a  mind  which 
has  firmly  fixed  its  own  centre  there  can  be  no  confusion, 


THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  197 

for  no  fact  can  enter  there  except  as  it  takes  its  place  in 
an  order  already  established.  Nothing  can  be  strange, 
nothing  can  come  amiss.  Neither  need  there  be  any 
lack  of  material,  for  the  world  of  mind,  like  the  world  of 
matter,  adjusts  itself  to  every  point  of  view.  It  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  surprising  facts  in  our  whole  experience 
that,  as  soon  as  a  man  becomes  thoroughly  interested  in 
anything,  and  wide  awake  at  one  point  in  his  life,  the 
universe  seems  to  join  in  a  kindly  conspiracy  to  help  him. 
New  facts  crowd  in  upon  him,  half-forgotten  experiences 
return  with  a  new  meaning,  chance  reading  is  full  of 
enlightening  references,  and  he  meets  people  whose  thought 
is  moving  in  a  similar  direction.  If  he  misses  any  necessary 
idea,  it  will  be  because  he  has  formed,  and  formed  too 
narrowly,  a  notion  that  this  or  that  in  no  way  concerns 
him.  It  might  even  be  said,  without  too  much  exaggera- 
tion, that  a  man  has  only  to  know  what  he  wants  and  life 
will  hasten  to  bring  it  to  him;  only  to  fix  his  centre 
and  the  world  will  group  itself  round  him  in  a  beautiful 
unity. 

One  sense  there  certainly  is  in  which  these  words  hold 
almost  literally  true.  We  have,  namely,  the  power  to 
determine  in  large  measure  the  character  of  what  we 
receive,  through  the  point  of  view  in  which  we  look  at  it. 
As  for  people,  it  is  notorious  that  their  behavior  toward 
us  is  governed  by  what  we  expect  of  them.  The  quickest 
way  to  get  cheated  is  to  anticipate  deceit;  and  an  open- 
minded  confidence  often  begets  nobility  in  others.  As 
for  facts,  or  rather  the  statements  through  which  we  know 
them,  these  are  determined  almost  wholly  by  our  point 
of  view  as  observers.  Is  your  life  hard  and  uncongenial? 
There  are  open  to  you  two  purely  mental  methods  of 
escape.  First  lower,  for  the  moment,  your  ideal.  Think 
less  highly  of  what  you  deserve,  or  consider  how  small 


198  THE  POINT  OF  VIEW 

are  your  actual  needs.  If  this  method  fails  to  bring  relief, 
you  may  "count  up  your  mercies";  you  may  turn  the 
attention  upon  those  elements  of  good  which  are  present 
in  even  the  worst  situation.  These  two  means  between 
them  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  transform  the  most  stubborn 
fact.  They  rest,  at  all  events,  on  principles  which  are 
fundamental  in  all  thought. 

Beyond  the  question  of  what  things  seem  to  the  in- 
dividual mind  there  lies,  however,  the  more  troublesome 
question  of  what  they  really  are.  In  the  conflict  of 
opposing  purposes  and  points  of  view  we  are  sometimes 
obliged  in  a  more  or  less  arbitrary  way  to  determine  what 
is  true  and  what  is  false,  and  this  we  must  do  on  the  basis 
of  something  more  than  personal  opinion.  Individual 
notions  of  truth  will  often  need  correction.  They  will 
require  to  be  supplemented;  and,  curiously  enough,  the 
best  source  from  which  to  supplement  them  is  the  one 
that  most  people  avoid,  —  the  notions  of  those  that  hold 
diametrically  the  opposite  opinions.  This  must  be  true 
because  of  the  very  nature  of  thought.  All  thinking 
polarizes  the  world  of  fact  and  obtains  clear  conceptions 
wholly  through  contrast.  Thus  temperance  is  contrasted 
with  indulgence,  light  with  darkness,  far  with  near.  It  is 
impossible,  for  the  most  part,  even  to  define  terms  in 
words  except  by  explaining  what  they  do  not  mean. 
Indeed  all  ideas  may  be  said  to  be  one-sided,  and,  when 
they  are  applied  to  facts,  they  give  a  one-sided  result. 
In  such  a  method  of  thhiking,  used  with  a  full  sense 
of  its  deficiencies,  there  can  be  no  harm;  but  who  can 
boast  of  possessing  such  a  sense?  Under  the  condi- 
tions the  safest  plan  seems  to  be  to  hunt  up  what  was 
lost  in  making  yom-  own  thought  clear.  Study  the  oppo- 
site. Learn  constantly  to  contradict  yourself.  If  you 
are  given  over  to  scientific   methods  of  thinking,  try 


THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  199 

to  understand  what  there  may  be  of  value  in  an  artis- 
tic and  literary  point  of  view.  If  you  are  rich,  learn  of 
the  poor.  Find  the  man  who  stands  at  the  other  end 
of  the  diameter  and  make  him  your  schoolmaster.  He 
doubtless  despises  you  and  all  your  opinions,  but  this 
frame  of  mind  in  him  is  only  a  guarantee  that  he  can  offer 
what  you  need. 

The  attempt  to  profit  by  points  of  view  which  differ 
from  one's  own  will  be  valueless  without  a  degree  of 
sympathy.  There  must  be  behind  it,  not  merely  the 
usual  state  of  mind  falsely  called  "openness  to  conviction,*' 
but  the  knowledge  that  one's  opponent  is,  like  one's  self, 
a  human  being,  and  the  shrewd  suspicion  that  most 
differences  of  opinion  are  apparent  rather  than  real. 
When  the  heat  of  argument  has  passed,  we  all  do  somehow 
think  pretty  much  alike.  This  is  fortunate,  as  the  case 
stands,  for,  after  all,  the  only  test  we  can  assign  for  truth 
is  a  social  one.  Both  for  facts  and  for  theories,  the  truth 
must  be  defined  as  the  conclusions  of  what  may  be  called 
our  common  sense,  the  agreement  of  all  those  best  fitted, 
in  a  given  case,  to  know  and  to  judge.  This  agreement, 
however,  is  not  something  foreign  to  the  individual,  but  of 
the  very  nature  of  his  deeper  life;  and  the  common  sense 
is  but  the  voice  of  the  higher  self.  Within  each  mind 
there  is  an  unending  debate  between  the  self  of  the  mo- 
mentary tastes  and  preferences  and  the  self  of  the  broader 
principles.  The  personal  self  is  loud-mouthed,  self-assert- 
ive, and  argumentative.  He  keeps  up  a  din  in  which  the 
discovery  of  truth  is  next  to  impossible;  but  sometimes  in 
the  quiet  one  hears  another  voice.  It  is  to  this  that  the 
student  of  logic  will  desire  to  listen;  for,  since  it  speaks 
much  the  same  message  to  all,  it  shows  the  only  character- 
istic by  which,  with  our  present  limits  of  knowledge,  we 
are  able  to  recognize  truth. 


200  THE  POINT  OF  VIEW 


We  hear  it  sometimes  said  that  the  object  of  education 
is  to  teach  us  our  limitations;  and  so  we  should  do  ill  to 
conclude  this  book  without  a  glimpse  over  the  hedge  into 
the  much  fairer  fields  of  thought  that  lie  beyond  it.  We 
have  attempted  to  study  merely  that  degree  of  assurance 
and  that  type  of  truth  which  may  be  reached  through 
clear  thinking.  Beyond  this,  as  everybody  knows,  is  an 
entirely  different  method  of  arriving  at  conclusions,  and 
one  which,  for  lack  of  a  better  name,  we  sometimes  call 
illumination.  It  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  dimmer  and  less 
definable  workings  of  both  the  senses  and  the  mind,  the 
influence  upon  us  of  that  large  remnant  of  unbounded 
reality  which  our  conscious  thought  has  not  taken  into 
account.  This  influence  is  responsible  for  the  thousand 
states  of  mind  which  caimot  be  clearly  expressed  in  terms 
of  logic.  Here  there  is  room  for  literature  and  the  arts. 
Here  too  belongs  what  we  term  belief,  that  curious  mood 
of  denial  of  doubt  which  will  not  come  at  the  call  of  either 
evidence  or  proof.  So  we  may  glance  over  the  hedge,  as 
a  man  casts  his  eye  into  a  pleasant  garden  and  passes 
onward  to  his  work. 


APPENDIX  A 

EXAMPLE  OF  LOGICAL  ANALYSIS 

But  few  long  exercises  have  been  introduced  in  this  book 
requiring  a  direct  use  of  the  critical  faculty.  Such  work 
can  best  be  done,  under  guidance  from  the  teacher,  in 
connection  with  the  student's  own  writing.  Examples  of 
faulty  method  in  the  work  of  others  are  likely  to  seem, 
like  the  sins  discussed  in  the  pulpit,  rather  remote  from 
one's  own  experience.  At  the  same  time  the  following 
theoretical  discussion  has  been  annotated  and  is  appended 
here,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  serve  for  those  unaccustomed 
to  logical  analysis  as  a  sort  of  model  of  critical  method, 
or  that  it  may  be  useful  in  review.  The  discussion  is,  in 
a  word,  an  attempt  to  fix  upon  an  ideal  and  then  to  apply 
that  ideal,  with  negative  results,  to  a  range  of  facts. 
One  thing  which  comes  out  in  a  rather  interesting  way  is 
the  pains  which  the  writer  has  taken  to  adjust  his  ideal  so 
as  to  provide  for  a  negative  result. 

The  Honor  System 

The  discussion  about  introducing  the  honor  system  has  had 
considerable  interest, ^  and  is  justified,  if  only  in  reminding  us 
that  we  have  large  questions  to  solve;  but  it  appears  not  yet 
to  have  gone  very  deep.^  Valuable  facts  have  been  brought 
out  to  show  the  workings  of  the  system  in  other  colleges.    Some 

1  As  is  illustrated  in  the  two  following  sentences. 

2  A  proof,  completed  below,  i.e.  because  it  has  not  yet  touched 
the  question  of  school  spirit. 


202  EXAMPLE   OF   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS 

hopeful  ^  spirits  have  reasoned  persuasively  of  its  probable 
benefits,  in  raising  the  life  of  the  school  to  an  almost  ideal  stand- 
ard. As  a  result  of  all  these  arguments  most  of  us  admit  that 
it  works  in  some  places,  and  that,  when  it  works,  nothing  could 
show  a  better  state  of  health  in  a  school.  The  only  remaining 
question «  is  whether  the  honor  system  causes  healthy  school 
life  or  results  from  it.  If  it  is  a  cause,  we  want  it;  if  an  effect 
and  we  reach  for  it  prematurely,  it  is  likely  to  be  more  bitter 
than  a  green  persimmon. 

The  most  striking  aspect  of  the  honor  system  is  its  insta- 
bility. One  man,  perhaps,  could  hardly  overthrow  it.  Six  un- 
questionably could.*  Its  foundation  is  a  lot  of  ideas  not  much 
heard  of  these  days,  except  in  the  pulpit.  They  are  enthusiasm, 
confidence,  and  love.*  I  am  almost  ashamed  to  mention  them, 
and  certainly  should  not  if  I  supposed  my  doing  so  could  be 
twisted  into  a  personal  endorsement.*  I  hope  the  breach  of 
good  manners  maj^  be  excused,  because  I  use  the  words  merely 
as  practical  signs  in  the  business  of  what  I  have  to  say.  I 
know  nothing  more  about  their  deeper  significance  than  a 
barber  knows  of  the  history  of  striped  poles. 

*This  word,  and  "ideal"  below,  are  insinuations.  They  offer 
an  argument  from  resemblance,  based  on  the  following  law:  The 
"ideals"  of  hopeful  spirits  are  not  likely  to  be  worth  much  in 
practice. 

*0n  the  general  principle  that  not  everything  which  follows  a 
thing  is  the  effect  of  it.  A  question  "remaining"  in  the  sense  of 
left  over  from  the  arguments  referred  to;  but  not,  as  might  appear, 
to  be  solved  in  this  essay.  The  answer  would  imply  a  study  of 
school  spirit  before  and  during  the  experiment,  in  schools  where  it 
had  succeeded  and  in  schools  where  it  had  failed. 

•This  statement  about  fact  is  nowhere  verified. 

*An  argument  from  resemblance,  resting  on  the  law:  Whatever 
is  founded  on  remote  ideals  is  unstable. 

'Ironical,  of  course.  At  the  same  time  part  of  the  argument: 
These  ideals  are  remote,  for  they  are  almost  unknown  to  the  writer, 
and 

If  the  writer  knows  little  of  them,  what  must  be  the  case  of  the 
average  mind! 


EXAMPLE  OF  LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  203 

Enthusiasm,  —  this  state  of  things  exists  in  some  schools. ^ 
It  is  not  merely  cheering  at  a  theatre,  or  passing  a  loving-cup 
at  a  dinner,  though  these  things  help.^  It  is  more  hke  a  demoniac 
possession,  the  indweUing  of  a  spirit  greater  than  your  own, 
which  hfts  you  entirely  out  of  yourself.'  When  a  body  of  men 
march  in  a  crowd,  with  however  much  cheering,  the  spirit  is 
not  necessarily  there.  It  cares  nothing  for  red  fire,  per  se.^ 
But  when  the  crowd  develops  an  ideal  of  conduct,  and  acts  hke 
an  organized  body  to  punish  those  who  fall  below  the  standard, 
the  spirit  goes  before  them  as  in  a  pillar  of  fire.'  The  average 
man  feels  touches  of  this  possession  but  few  times  in  his  life 
—  now  and  then,  perhaps,  when  he  rises  in  a  crowd  and  takes 
off  his  hat  to  sing  "America,"  and  once  when  his  father  first 
lays  his  hand  on  his  shoulder  and  talks  to  him  as  though  he  were 
a  man.*  The  member  of  a  great  school  or  college  may  feel  it 
every  day.  With  him  it  may  become  a  sustained  state  of  feel- 
ing which  differs  from  insanity  only  in  working  continuously, 
consistently,  and  always  for  good.^  Without  this  enthusiasm 
no  system  of  school  government  will  make  men  more  than  ordi- 
nary human  beings,  strongly  tempted  to  do  what  is  easiest  and 
promises  most  momentary  advantage.^ 

1  Again  an  insinuation :  A  place  where  people  need  the  assurance 
that  it  exists  is  not  a  place  where  it  thrives. 

2  Here  the  ideal  begins  to  be  defined.  Aside  from  the  question 
of  truth,  the  writer  was  probably  aware  that  the  presence  of  these 
things  in  the  definition  would  spoil  his  proof. 

'These  statements  are  theoretical  and  are  unsupported.  The 
writer  must  be  allowed  to  put  into  his  ideal  whatever  traits  he 
pleases. 

*This  is  the  only  argument  used  in  support  of  the  ideal  of 
enthusiasm: 

The  ideal  is  not  unreasonably  lofty,  for 

We  have  all  seen  it  worked  out,  at  least  in  some  measure,  in  our 
own  lives. 

5  This  statement  and  the  one  preceding  are  not  theories  about 
an  ideal,  but  statements  about  fact.  The  failure  to  back  them  up 
is  therefore  totally  without  excuse. 

5  The  fundamental  law  of  all  this  part  of  the  essay:  When  men 


204  EXAMPLE  OF   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS 

Confidence,  —  the  second  requirement  for  the  working  of 
the  honor  system.  Other  things  being  equal,  when  we  are 
trusted  imphcitly,  we  live  up  to  what  is  expected  of  us.^  The 
man  who  hves  up  to  the  honor  system  will  do  so,  other  things 
being  equal,  because  he  feels  either  that  his  instructors  trust 
him  or  that  the  eyes  of  his  fellow  students  are  on  him,  with 
not  the  lurking  shadow  of  a  doubt  that  he  will  be  worthy.  Do 
our  instructors  trust  us?  Do  they  know  us  well  enough?  Have 
we  given  them  the  opportunity,  or  have  we,  perhaps,  treated 
them  as  bloodless  abstractions  of  the  pedantic,  suspicious, 
and  thin-skinned  school-master  kind?  Again,  do  we  trust  one 
another?  '  This  too  depends  upon  the  degree  of  our  acquaint- 
ance? Plenty  of  men  will  keep  their  seats  in  a  car  when  a  lady 
is  standing, — but  not  if  they  know  the  lady.  Plenty  of  men 
will  cheat  a  railroad  company  of  a  fare,  — but  not  if  they  know 
the  conductor.  1  To  know  other  people  is  to  respect  them;  to 
be  kno\sTi  by  other  people  is  to  respect  yourself.  What  keeps 
men  straight  under  the  honor  system  is  the  steadying  sense, 
like  the  hand  of  a  friend  on  one's  shoulder,  that  everybody 
knows  them  and  trusts  them." 

Love,  —  the  third  necessity.   The  man  who  goes  right  under 

are  left  to  natural  conditions,  they  will  work  for  their  own  momentary 
advantage.  The  reasoning  should  be  followed  backward  from  this 
point. 

^  This  is  not,  as  at  first  might  seem,  a  law,  but  a  Rule.  See  the 
implied  Reason  below  (2): 

Confidence  with  knowledge  must  beget  trustworthiness,  for 

It  appeals  to  self-pride. 

Here  again  the  reader  is  cleverly  cheated  of  his  facts. 

*  This  method  of  questioning  works  admirably  —  when  it  happens 
to  succeed.  Such  are  our  habits  in  generalization  that  one  fact 
drawn  from  our  own  experience  is  suflBcient  to  induce  belief  about 
a  whole  class. 

*In  all  these  paragraphs  the  author  develops  his  ideal  and  at 
the  same  time  attempts  to  show  that  it  does  not  exist  in  the  school 
in  question.  The  former  purpose,  though  not  the  main  end  of  the 
essay,  is  made  temporarily  to  appear  so  through  the  structure  of 
the  paragraphs. 


EXAMPLE  OF  LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  205 

the  honor  system  refrains  from  cheating,  if  tempted,  because 
he  wiUingly  sacrifices  his  inchnation  for  something  that  he 
loves  better.  1  Enthusiasm,  confidence,  and  love,  —  as  in  the 
case  of  the  better-known  trio,  so  here,  the  greatest  is  love. 
Without  it  the  spirit  of  enthusiasm  will  not  rage,  and  a  school 
will  have  no  life  as  a  common  body,  but  every  man  will  be  try- 
ing to  get  the  better  of  every  other. 2  Do  we  love  our  school? 
A  feehng  of  some  sort  there  undoubtedly  is,  growing  stronger 
in  recent  years,  but  ^  not  comparable  to  the  sweUing  in  the 
heart  of  a  graduate  of  one  of  the  best  classical  schools  or  col- 
leges, when  he  thinks  of  the  good  old  times.  These  men  hear 
of  the  school  from  afar  and  enter  it  fired  mth  a  great  ideal. 
They  enter,  in  the  better  cases,  not  to  make  a  bargain  for  prac- 
tical knowledge,  but  to  begin  an  ideal  life.*  The  outcome  of 
this  life,  they  have  always  heard,  is  to  be  the  development  of 
character,  the  broadening  of  mind,  and  all  sorts  of  possibilities 
for  service  to  the  community. ^  Our  men  also  hear  of  the  school 
from  afar,  but  chiefly  as  a  place  where  one  may  buy  practical 
knowledge  that  can  be  sold  later  at  a  profit,  —  a  first-class 
jobbing  house  for  mental  wares.  Many  of  them  enter  it,  on 
their  own  confession,  with  no  stronger  preference  than  that 
which  determines  the  selection  of  the  shop  where  they  buy 
shoes."  Do  they  find  anything  to  love  here,  or  do  they  merely 
endure,  as  men  endure  arm  movements  in  a  gymnasium? ' 

1 A  proof: 

Love  is  necessary  to  the  working  of  the  honor  system,  for 
Love  means  willingness  to  sacrifice  one's  own  desires. 
2  A  repetition  of  the  fundamental  law  referred  to  earlier. 
'Again,  the  arbitrary  definition  of  the  ideal. 
*  An  unsupported  statement  about  facts.     It  is,  however,  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  could  never  be  verified  satisfactorily. 

6  To  reiterate  and  elaborate  an  assertion  is  not,  of  course,  to  verify  it, 
but  for  the  careless  reader  the  one  often  does  as  well  as  the  other. 

8  An  argument  from  resemblance,  based  on  the  law  that  profit 
and  love  cannot  go  hand  in  hand.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
inquire  why  this  seems  true. 

7  An  illustration  of  one  case  where  the  above  law  is  known  to 
hold  good. 


206  EXAMPLE   OF   LOGICAL  ANALYSIS 

We  may  or  may  not  be  moving  in  the  direction  of  these 
great  influences;  the  vital  point  is  that  it  seems  doubtful  whether 
we  have  arrived.  ^  When  the  new  song-book  is  fifty  or  a  hundred 
years  old;  when  the  union  of  a  Saturday  night  is  a  natural  gather- 
ing place  for  all  the  outcast,  even  instructors;  when  the  fresh- 
man signs  liis  class  constitution,  even  at  the  expense  of  paying 
his  class  dues;  and  when  the  acts  of  those  whose  names  appear 
in  this  year's  catalogue  shall  be  but  part  of  a  great  tradition 
of  gentlemanly  and  brotherly  hving,  —  then  the  persimmons  of 
the  honor  system  may  be  ripe.  As  the  experience  of  other 
schools  shows,  they  can  never  be  picked  from  the  tree  but  once, 
and  they  are  uncommonly  bitter  when  they  are  green. 

Enthusiasm,  confidence,  love.  It  is  more  difficult  for  an  engi- 
neering school  to  arouse  these  feelings  in  its  pupils  than  for  a 
college.  They  are  aroused  only  where  large  bodies  of  men  work 
together,'  but,  more  than  that,  only  where  they  work  together 
for  the  most  lofty  aims.  In  this  respect  the  classical  college 
has  the  advantage  of  us.  Its  claims,  though  indefinite  and  some- 
what unsupported  by  results,  are  of  the  highest  order.  Its 
ideals  wear  the  aspect  of  a  large  unselfishness  and  devotion  to 
mankind.'  If  its  students  mistake  the  conditions  of  training 
and  forget  to  learn  anything  about  the  concrete  facts  with  which 
they  hope  later  to  do  so  much,  those  accidental  mistakes  do  not 
at  first  impair  the  spirit.*  They  love  their  school,  because  it 
means  to  them  the  greatest  things  in  life,  ideals  too  great  to  be 

*  A  fresh  attempt  to  develop  the  ideal,  this  time  through  concrete 
examples.  The  notions  evolved  seem  to  be:  The  best  school  spirit 
presupFHMes  school  customs;  fellowship;  self-sacrifice  in  work  and 
in  money  contributions;  and  high  tradition.  Here  too  the  method 
of  negatives  is  followed. 

'  The  only  support  for  this  statement  is  found  in  the  illustrations 
—  "America,"  etc.  —  on  an  earlier  page. 

*  These  statements  about  facts  are  taken  for  granted. 

*  They  do  not  impair  the  school  spirit,  —  i.e.  they  are  non- 
essential, for 

They  are  merely  "accidental,"  —  i.e.  non-essential. 
Such  proof  as  there  is  here  moves  in  a  circle.   The  Rule  is  a  mere 
equivalence  of  terms. 


EXAMPLE  OF  LOGICAL  ANALYSIS  207 

intelligible,  and  therefore  all  the  dearer.^  As  opposed  to  this 
the  technical  student  has  nothing  so  showy.  He  points  to  the 
material  advancement  due  to  science,  and  is  met  with  the  criti- 
cism, which  his  own  heart  almost  endorses,  that  we  are  not  a 
whit  better  men  than  they  were  in  the  days  of  Noah.^  The 
best  he  can  show  is  appliances  for  the  comfort  of  the  body  and 
the  preservation  of  health  and  life.  The  world  feels,  and  he 
feels  too,  to  some  extent,  that,  if  things  are  really  going  to 
the  dogs  morally,  improvements  in  the  gasoline  engine  and  in  the 
chemical  analysis  of  sugar  '  are  not  much  to  the  point.  Then  it 
says  to  him,  ''You  are  useful  in  a  practical  way  and  you  get 
your  pay;  but  expect  no  thanks."  *  And  he  says  to  his  school, 
"I  shall  be  glad  to  make  a  bargain  for  some  of  your  best  goods, 
but  don't  talk  to  me  about  the  deeper  things  of  life,  for  they  are 
not  in  your  line." 

Meanwhile  both  the  world  and  he  are,  of  course,  wrong.  The 
man  who  masters  fact  is  the  only  one  who  can  hope  for  power. 
Not  seeing  this  truth,  the  classical  college  has  been  tried  and 
found  wanting.  Here,  then,  is  the  opportunity  for  the  engineer. 
He  may  put  forward  the  most  lofty  claims,  but  he  must  base 
them  on  his  contributions,  not  to  material  progress,'*  but  to 
knowledge.  Scientific  schools  must  be  permeated,  even  in  the 
most  elementary  subjects,  with  the  spirit  of  research.  Then 
men  will  flock  to  them,  not  from  commercial  motives,  but  from 
love."  Then  they  will  be  ready  for  the  honor  system;  only  it 
will  not  then  be  necessary. 

1  A  law:   What  men  cannot  understand  they  tend  to  worship. 

2  A  Rule:   "Material"  advancement  is  not  real  betterment. 
'Neither  of  these  is  a  fair  sample  of  "material"  advancement. 

The  new  work  is  here  to  be  judged  by  the  old  standards  of  thought 
*  It  may  be  profitable  to  consider  in  what  way,  actually,  the 

world  would  make  these  opinions  felt.     The  statement  takes  its 

force  from  its  opposite,  which  is  that  theoretical  reformers  are 

received  with  great  signs  of  public  gratitude. 

6  "Power"  is  the  mastery  of  facts,  and  yet  either  does  not  lead  to 

"material  progress"  or  is  not  valuable  on  that  account. 

8  To  what  this  love  will  attach  itself  can  be  determined  only  by 

one  who  understands  the  difficulty  referred  to  in  the  preceding  note. 


APPENDIX  B 
THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

The  best  general  introduction  to  the  use  of  reference 
books  is  Kroeger,  Guide  to  the  Study  and  Use  of  Reference 
Books,  American  Library  Association,  Boston,  1903.  For 
the  most  recent  books  this  is  somewhat  out  of  date.  The 
method  of  study  is  much  the  same  for  all  such  books. 
The  student  should  examine  the  title-page  and  the  intro- 
duction or  preface.  These  will  give  him  some  notion  of 
the  authorities  quoted,  the  date  of  publication,  the  arrange- 
ment, and  the  scope  of  treatment.  He  should  then  study 
and  attempt  to  use  the  table  of  contents  and  the  indexes, 
noting  particularly  the  system  of  cross-references,  if  any. 
Next  should  follow  the  reading  of  several  articles  on  sub- 
jects with  which  he  is  familiar  and  a  comparison  of  these 
with  articles  on  the  same  subjects  in  other  books.  In  all 
books  which  deal  with  topics  at  any  length,  it  is  important 
to  note  the  length  of  the  article,  its  authorship,  if  stated, 
and  how  it  is  arranged  with  regard  to  other  material  on  the 
same  topic.  One  should  observe  whether  a  bibliography  is 
given  and,  if  so,  how  extensive  and  how  nearly  up  to  date. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  important  reference 
works  with  which  the  author  happens  to  be  familiar. 
When  special  methods  of  study  seem  advisable,  they  are 
indicated  in  questions  and  exercises  following  the  various 
titles.  Though  most  of  the  books  are  in  common  use,  the 
exercises  must,  of  course,  be  changed  as  necessary  to  adapt 
them  to  the  resources  of  the  school  library. 


THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  209 

A.  DICTIONARIES 

MuRHAY,  J.  A.  H.,  New  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Prin- 
ciples. Oxford,  The  Clarendon  Press.  Completed  (1912) 
through  Vol.  VIII,  Part  1,  and  portions  of  later  volumes. 
Words  in  use  for  the  past  seven  hundred  years,  with  their 
origin  and  history,  and  abundant  quotations.  Invaluable 
for  the  advanced  student  of  language  and  literature.  Not 
so  well  adapted  as  the  other  dictionaries  for  e very-day  use. 

Webster,  New  International  Dictionary  of  the  Enghsh  Lan- 
guage. Merriam.  Springfield,  Mass.,  1910.  2  vols.  There 
have  been  various  editions  since  the  first  in  1828.  The  pres- 
ent one  embodies  considerable  new  material  and  is  worthy 
of  special  study.  The  explanations  of  the  words  have  been 
enlarged  and  more  attention  has  been  put  on  the  treatment 
of  synonyms.  The  student  should  make  sure  that  he  under- 
stands the  common  abbreviations  used  in  dictionaries:  w., 
v.,  a.,  adv.,  i.,  L,  pL,  p.p.,  p.pr,,  imp.,  cf.,  obs.,  F.,  OF.,  L., 
etc.  The  most  usual  marks  of  pronunciation  should  be 
studied,  as  a,  a,  a,  I,  I. 

Read,  as  an  instance  of  the  treatment,  what  is  said  of 
ablaze,  -able,  and  able.  Compare  the  treatment  of  synonyms 
under  able  with  those  for  the  same  word  in  Crabb  and  Roget. 

The  Century  Dictionary.  New  York,  1889-91.  The  Cen- 
tury Co.    Supplement,  New  Vols.  I  and  II,  1909. 

The  Century  is  comprehensive  rather  than  critical,  a  dic- 
tionary of  the  growing  language.  Compare  with  Webster 
the  treatment  of  ablaze,  -able,  able.  Note  especially  the  dif- 
ference in  the  kind  and  length  of  explanation  and  in  the 
treatment  of  synonyms.  The  Supplement  adds  120,000 
words  and  phrases,  especially  in  science,  the  arts,  and  the 
common  vocabulary.  Test  this  by  looking  up  any  recent 
word,  as  disassemble,  in  the  New  International,  the  Century, 
and  the  Century  New  Volumes. 


210  THE   USE  OF   REFERENCE  BOOKS 

B.  SPECIAL  DICTIONARIES 

Common  Dictionary  Appendixes.  The  appendixes  at  the 
back  of  large  dictionaries,  as  for  instance  Webster's,  may  be 
used  for  a  variety  of  ordinary  matters.  The  list  is  usually 
somewhat  as  follows: 

A  dictionary  of  noted  names  of  fiction. 

A  biographical  dictionary,  with  pronunciation. 

A  list  of  Enghsh  Christian  names. 

A  gazetteer  of  the  world,  with  pronunciation. 

A  hst  of  Scripture  proper  names. 

A  list  of  Greek  and  Latin  proper  names. 

Foreign  quotations  and  phrases. 

Abbreviations,  and  signs  used  in  writing  and  printing. 
Only  words  in  the  most  conmion  use  are  hkely  to  be  found  in 
such  lists. 
Century  Cyclopedia  of  Names.     New  York,   1894.     The 
Century  Co. 

Names  relating  to  geography,  biography,  mythology,  his- 
tory, ethics,  art,  and  fiction.  Pronunciation  given.  For 
epccial  information,  the  student  will  usually  save  time  by 
consulting  this  book  first.  The  articles  are  concise.  The 
subjects  best  covered  are  in  geography  and  biography,  which 
latter  includes  persons  still  living. 
Technological  and  Scientific  Dictionary.  Goodchild  and 
Tweeney.    Philadelphia,  1906.    Lippincott. 

Subjects  relating  to  the  sciences,  arts,  manufactures,  and 
trades.    Brief  treatment.    English  authorities. 
Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable.    Brewer.    London,  1896. 
Cassell. 

The  derivation,  source,  or  origin  of  common  phrases,  allu- 
sions, and  words  of  special  meaning.  There  is  a  multitude 
of  special  dictionaries  containing  "facts  for  the  curious,"  in 
various  departments  of  knowledge.  As  they  are  of  small 
consequence  to  the  beginner,  they  are  not  included  here. 
Familiar  Quotations.  Bartlett,  J.  Boston,  1892.  Little, 
Brown  and  Co. 


THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  211 

Quotations  from  poetry  and  prose,  in  both  ancient  and 
modern  literature.    Arranged  chronologically,  but  with  an 
index  of  authors,  and  another  of  important  words. 
Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Quotations.     Hoyt,  J.  K.     New 
York,  1896.     Funic:  and  Wagnalls. 

Quotations  in  Enghsh,  Latin,  and  modern  foreign  languages. 
Arranged  under  subjects,  except  those  from  the  Bible.    Top- 
ical index,  and  cross-references  to  allied  subjects. 
A  Book  of  Quotations,  Proverbs,  and  Household  Words. 
Benham,  W.  G.     Philadelphia,  1907.     Lippincott. 

The  Enghsh  quotations  are  arranged  under  authors.    Index 
of  authors,  and  ample  verbal  index  of  important  words. 
English  Synonyms.    Crabb,  G.    New  York,  1892.    Harpers. 

In  alphabetical  arrangement.    The  use  of  words  is  illus- 
trated from  the  best  authors. 
Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases.    Roget,  P.  M. 
New  York,  1886,  Crowell;  Longmans.     Boston,  De  Wolfe. 

A  recently  enlarged  edition.  The  object  of  the  book  is  to 
furnish  expression  when  the  thought  is  already  in  mind  in  a 
general  form.  Classified  under  abstract  relations,  as  space, 
matter,  intellect,  etc.  The  alphabetical  index  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  use  the  book  for  synonyms.  Valuable  for  advanced 
students  of  composition. 

C.  BIOGRAPHY  AND  AUTHORSHIP 
The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.    Leslie  Stephen 
and    Sidney    Lee.    London,    1885-1900.    Smith.    63    vols. 
Supplement  to  1901,  3  vols. 

The  most  important  and  comprehensive  work  of  its  kind. 
No  living  persons. 
Lippincott's  Biographical  Dictionary.    Philadelphia,  1901. 
To  end  of  nineteenth  century.    Sketches  of  Hves,  with  bio- 
graphical references.    An  interesting  introduction  gives  the 
general  principles  of  pronunciation  in  the  important  languages 
of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  National  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography.     New 
York,  1892-1901.    White. 


212  THE   USE  OF   REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Devoted  mainly  to  contemporaries.    Especially  valuable  for 
less  well-known  Americans. 
A  Critical  Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and  Biog- 
KAPHY,  AND  American  Authors,  Living  and  Deceased. 
Allibone,  S.  A.    Pliiladelpliia.     Lippincott. 

To  1SS8.    Biographical  material  of  authors,  lists  of  works, 
and  critical  notes  from  authors  and  reviews. 
Dictionary  of  English  Literature.    Adams,  W.  D.    New 
York,  1884.    CasseU. 

A  list  of  prominent  authors,  their  dates,  the  dates  and 
titles  of  their  works,  and  critical  extracts.  Together  with 
this  are  pen-names,  important  quotations,  proverbs,  the  names 
of  characters,  and  sometimes  the  first  lines  of  poems. 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  Nineteenth  Century  Authors. 
Hodgkins,  L.  M.     Boston,  1891.    Heath. 

A  list  of  twenty-six  Enghsh  and  American  authors,  with 
references  to  hterature  on  each. 
Who's  the  Author?    Peet,  L.  H.    New  York,  1901.    Crowell. 
A  brief  account  of  novels,  stories,  speeches,  songs,  and 
general  writing  in  America. 
Who's  Who?    London.    Annual.     Macmillan. 

For  li\dng  celebrities.     Brief  notices.    Some  Americans. 
Who's  Who  in  America,    Biennial.    Chicago.    Marquis. 

D.  ENCYCLOPiEDIAS 

ENCYCLOPiEDiA  Britannica.  Philadelphia,  1875-90.  Stod- 
dart.  In  this  edition  the  number  of  articles  on  America  was 
increased. 

Cambridge,  England,  1910.  The  University  Press.  11th 
edition.    28  vols,  and  Index. 

The  standard  work  of  reference.  Indexed  under  general 
subjects,  except  that  in  the  latest  edition  articles  have  in 
some  cases  been  subdivided.  Bibhographies.  The  index 
gives  cross-references. 

Compare  the  treatment  of  the  following  list  of  representa- 
tive topics  with  that  in  Americana: 


THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  213 

Abbey,  A.  E.;  Abbotsford;  Abington,  Mass.;  Absolute; 
Absolute,  Sir  Anthony;  Abbott,  Lyman;  Accident  Insurance; 
Acetylene. 

See  Aeronautics  in  the  index.    Examine  some  of  the  cross- 
references  and  compare  the  treatment  of  this  topic  with  that 
in  the  New  International  Encyclopaedia. 
The  New  International  Encyclopaedia.     New  York,  1894. 
Dodd.    17  vols. 

The  exercises  suggested  are,  for  convenience,  all  confined 
to  Vol.  XIV.  Examine  the  map  of  the  PhiUppine  Islands, 
p.  20.  Is  it  apparently  complete?  What  does  it  show  of 
transportation?  elevations?  Look  over  the  article  on  the 
Phihppines,  especially  Ethnology,  Customs,  and  History, 
pp.  29,  30.  Is  the  bibliography  apparently  extensive? 
recent,  considering  the  date  of  publication? 

Other  articles  to  be  looked  over  for  a  comprehensive  notion 
of  the  scope  of  the  work:  Philadelphia  (What  are  the  lead- 
ing newspapers?  What  was  the  state  of  local  politics  at  the 
date  of  pubhcation?) ;  Pin;  Port  Arthur;  Positivism;  Psy- 
chical Research. 
Encyclopedia  Americana.  New  York,  1904.  Americana 
Company.     16  vols. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Scientific  American.  Many 
signed  articles  by  important  specialists.  Distinctively  Amer- 
ican, but  universal.  Biographies  of  hving  men,  brief  notices 
of  strange  names,  phrases,  and  allusions.  Pronunciation 
indicated. 

Note  the  extent  of  the  article  on  Abbreviations  and  com- 
pare the  hst  with  that  in  Webster's  New  International  Dic- 
tionary. See  above  for  a  Hst  of  topics  to  be  looked  over  in 
comparison  with  the  Britannica.  Glance  over  the  article 
on  Aerial  Locomotion.  Are  any  authorities  mentioned  in 
this  article  or  in  those  under  cross-references? 


214    THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

E.  ANNUALS  AND  YEAR  BOOKS 

(Exercises  based  on  books  pitblished  in  1911) 

Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia  and  Register  of  Impor- 
tant Events.    New  York,  1876-1902.     (Discontinued.) 

Intended  as  a  summary  of  events  for  the  year,  arranged  in 
logical  form,  under  large  headings.  History,  biography,  and 
literature  received  especial  attention. 

What  is  meant  by  a  cumulative  index?  Using  the  index 
to  the  last  volume,  see  what  can  be  learned  of  the  history  of 
some  recent  matters  of  interest:  Prohibition  in  Maine;  Con- 
servation; Concrete  construction.  For  the  last  topic,  look 
under:  Concrete,  Bridges,  Dams  (note  the  heading  "Egypt")* 
Reinforced  concrete.  Construction,  Engineering,  Building. 

Using  Vol.  VII  only,  look  up  Education,  Schools,  Colleges, 
Harvard,  and  Massachusetts. 
The  New  International  Year  Book.  New  York.    Dodd. 

Similar  in  purpose  to  Appleton's,  but  arranged  under 
detailed  headings.  Articles  revised  each  year.  Best  articles 
are  those  on  biography,  current  history,  and  politics.  Alpha- 
betical index,  with  hst  of  titles  in  volumes  for  the  preceding 
years.    Cross-references. 

Attempt  to  look  up  at  least  one  of  the  following  topics,  or, 
better,  some  similar  recent  topic  in  which  you  are  interested. 
Use  also  the  hst  of  titles  for  1907-09.  Note  whether  there 
are  any  references  to  authorities. 

(a)  The  events  in  Maine  leading  to  the  vote  on  prohibi- 
tion in  1911.  (Try  Prohibition,  Plaisted  (governor),  Sturgis 
law.  Constitutional  amendments,  Maine.) 

(6)  The  Balhnger-Pinchot  affair. 

(c)  Insurgency  in  the  Repubhcan  party. 

(d)  Concrete  construction. 

(e)  The  initiative,  the  referendum,  and  the  recall. 
The  American  Year  Book.    New  York,  1911.    Appleton. 

The  current  volume  is  the  first  of  a  proposed  series,  cover- 
ing comparative  and  national  statistics,  history,  law,  govern- 


THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  215 

ment,  economic  and  social  questions,  industries,  science 
and  engineering,  art,  literature,  and  education.  Some  bibli- 
ographical references.  A  list  of  important  events  in  America, 
and,  separately,  in  foreign  countries. 

Look  for  mention  of  your  own  college  under  headings  where 
it  should  occur.  Referring  to  previous  studies  with  other 
reference  books,  look  up:  Concrete,  Aeronautics,  Conserva- 
tion. Examine,  in  connection  with  the  article  in  the  New 
International  Encyclopaedia,  the  article  on  the  Phihppine 
Islands. 

The  Statesman's  Year  Book.    London.    Macmillan. 

Astronomical,  official,  and  other  information  relating  to 
the  British  Isles,  the  Colonies,  and  other  countries.  Con- 
tains a  useful,  though  brief,  chronicle  of  the  year  through 
September.    Societies,  clubs,  sporting  activities,  etc. 

Look  up:  Land  tax.  Income  tax.  What  position  in  the 
Enghsh  nobihty  is  occupied  by  Lord  Lansdowne,  Lord  Kitch- 
ener, Lord  Roberts?  What  were  the  dates  of  important  pro- 
ceedings in  the  House  of  Commons  (1910)  relative  to  the 
dispute  over  the  veto  power  of  the  House  of  Lords?  In  what 
way  would  these  dates  be  chiefly  valuable  in  looking  up  the 
history  of  the  dispute? 

Tribune  Almanac  and  Register.     New  York  Tribune. 

Facts  about  the  United  States:  election  returns,  statistics, 
laws,  etc. 

World  Almanac.    New  York  World. 

Chiefly  statistics.  A  book  much  used  in  all  practical  lit- 
erary work.  A  general  index,  and  an  index  of  important 
articles  in  preceding  volumes. 

Look  up:  Conservation,  Concrete  construction.  Engineer- 
ing, Custom  house,  examination  of  baggage.  Who  holds  the 
record  in  pole-vaulting  for  distance?    What  is  it? 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States.    United  States 
Bureau  of  Statistics. 

Deals  with  population,  finance,  commerce,  products,  immi- 
gration, and  education.  Sometimes  comparative  tables  for 
preceding  years. 


216  THE   USE   OF   REFERENCE   BOOKS 

F.  HISTORICAL  SUMMARIES 

Harper's  Book  of  Facts.    New  York,  1895.    Harpers. 

A  classified  history  of  the  world,  embracing  science,  lit- 
erature, and  art.    Useful,  concise  chronological  outlines. 
Dictionary  of  Dates,  and  universal  information  relative  to 
all  ages  and  nations.     Hayden.     New  York,  1898.    Putnam. 
Arranged  alphabetically,  under  event,  place,  etc.    A  full 
account  to  the  fall  of  1898. 
Time  Table  of  Modern  History,  400-1870.    Morrison,  M. 
Westminster,  1901.    Constable. 

Parallel  tables  of  the  history  of  various  countries.    A  gen- 
eral chart  of  history,  and  historical  maps.     Index. 
Tables  of  European  and  American  History,  Literature, 
Science,  and  Art,  200-1888.    Nichol,  J.    New  York,  1888. 
Macmillan. 

Arranged  by  periods,  chronologically. 
Annals  of  Politics  and  Culture,  1492-1899.    Gooch,  G.  P. 
Cambridge,  England,  1901.    Cambridge,  University  Press. 

Chronological,  with  a  general  index  and  references  to  other 
works. 

G.  LISTS  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

No  definite  exercises  can  well  be  suggested  for  the  use  of  the 
finding  lists  in  a  hbrary.  Each  student  should  choose  two  or 
three  subjects  in  which  he  is  interested  and  follow  them  through 
all  such  lists,  confining  his  attention  in  the  magazine  lists  to 
things  published  during  the  last  year.  An  exact  transcription 
of  the  entries  into  a  note-book  is  important.  The  student 
should  be  sure  that  he  imderstands  all  abbreviations.  No 
such  work  can  be  of  much  value  unless  the  articles  referred  to 
are  actually  consulted,  for  acquaintance  with  the  periodicals 
and  knowledge  of  the  kind  of  material  they  usually  furnish  is 
important.  With  the  book  lists,  httle  more  will  be  possible 
usually  than  to  know  their  place  on  the  shelves  and  to  study 
their  abbreviations  and  methods  of  arrangement. 


THE  USE  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  217 

Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature.  1802-81.  Sup- 
plements, 1882-1901. 

Such  general  periodicals  in  the  English  language  as  are 
likely  to  be  found  in  libraries.  Arranged  under  subjects, 
with  reference  to  volume  and  page. 

Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature.  1900-1904; 
1905-1909.  Monthly,  cumulated  in  yearly  volumes.  About 
ninety  periodicals.  A  current  events  index.  Cross-references 
on  important  articles. 

American  Literary  Index.  Fletcher  and  Bowker.  1892- 
1904.     Continued  as: 

American  Library  Index.    Fletcher  and  Haines. 

About  137  Enghsh  and  American  periodicals,  indexed 
under  subjects,  with  general  author  index.  Each  volume 
includes  an  annual  index  to  parts  of  books,  essays,  etc.,  an 
index  to  dates  of  the  year  which  may  serve  as  a  newspaper 
finding  list,  and  a  list  of  special  bibUographies.  The  Annual 
Library  Index  is  under  author,  title,  and  subject  in  one  list. 

Publishers'  Weekly.  American  book-trade  journal.  Books 
published  in  America,  full  titles,  descriptive  notes.  Weekly 
record,  arranged  alphabetically,  under  authors.  Lists  of 
the  more  prominent  new  English  books.  Monthly  cumu- 
lated fists  under  author,  title,  and  subject,  with  reference  to 
the  original  notice.    Cumulated  yearly. 

The  American  Catalogue  of  Books.    1876-1900. 

The  United  States  Catalogue  of  Books  in  Print  in  1899. 

Annual  American  Catalogue.  1886-1901.  New  York. 
Pubfishers'  Weekly. 

Indexed  by  authors,  and  title  and  subject.  Descriptive 
notes. 

Annual  American  Catalogue.  Since  1901  appears  as  cumu- 
lated volume  of  Publishers'  Weekly,  referred  to  above. 


APPENDIX  C 

A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES 
REFERRED  TO 

Briggs,  LeB.  R.    School,  College  and  Character.     Houghton, 

Mifflin  and  Co.    Boston,  1892. 
Canfield,  J.  H.    The  College  Student  and  his  Problems.     The 

Macmillan  Company.    New  York,  1902. 
Dewey,  J.    The  School  and  Society.    University  of  Chicago 

Press.     1900. 
EuoT,  C.  W.     Present  College  Questions.     Appleton  and  Co. 

New  York,  1903. 
FoRDTCE,  C.      College  Ethics.      Educational  Review,  37:492. 
GiDDiNGS,  F.   H.     Democracy  and  Empire.    The  Macmillan 

Company.     New  York,  1900. 
Hadley,  a.  T.    Wealth  and  Democracy  in  American  Colleges. 

Harpers,  113:450. 
Harris,  G.    Shall  the  University  Concern  Itself  More  Directly 

with  the  Morals  and  Manners  of  its  Students?    Proceedings 

of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1903. 
Hyde,  W.  D.    The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman. 

Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.     Boston,  1906. 
Jordan,  D.  S.    The  Proposed  Changes  at  Harvard.    The  North 

American  Review,  191:433. 
McCosH,  J.    The  Philhps  Exeter  Lectures.    Houghton,  Mifflin 

and  Co.    Boston,  1887. 
Meiklejohn,   a.    The  Evils  of  College  Athletics.    Harper's 

Weekly,  49:1751. 
Rogers,  J.  M.    What  is  Wrong  with  our  Public  Schools?    Lip- 

pincott's,  85:63. 
Slocum,  W.  F.     (See  Harris.) 


LIST  OF  BOOKS.  219 

Smith,  C.  A.    Honor  in  Student  Life.    Educational  Review, 

30:384. 
Thwing,  C.  F.    Letter  from  a  Father  to  his  Son  Entering 

College.    The  Independent,  69:741. 
Thwing,  C.  F.     (See  Jordan.) 
Tucker,  W.  J.     (See  Harris.) 

Whitney,  C.     Who  is  Responsible  for  the  Commercialism  in 
College  Sport?     Outing  Magazine,  46:485. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

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